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THE AMERICAN SERIES 01 TEXT-BOOKS. 

CRUTTENMFS NEW SYSTEM OF LANGUAGE. 



THE RHETORICAL GRAMMAR (No. I.) Retail Price, 75 cts. 

In the Rhetorical Grammar (No. I .), each chapter commences with 
Objective, or First Course Lessons, which are to be used by the student, 
as Reading Lessons, and are adapted to follow or to accompany such 
oral instructions as the teacher may choose to give. Those not already 
familiar with this new and popular mode of instruction will find, in 
these lessons, valuable suggestions as to the mode of presentation, and 
the order of arrangement. Each chapter concludes with Subjective, or 
Second Course Lessons, which are to be studied by the student, so that 
his knowledge of the subject may become familiar and scientific. These 
lessons are adapted to subjective, analytic, or topical recitations. This 
Work includes— the Essentials of Language ; the Construction and the 
Analysis of Words, Phrases, and Sentences; Punctuation, and the Grammar 
of Language. 

rice, $1,50. 

presented ac- 
six chapters, 
jogical Anal- 
e Grammar ; 
Ae system of 
Intended for 
text-book on 



5LIBRA.RY0FC0NGRESS.J 

# # 

lw«9- 



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THE I 

In tc 

cording 
C.Tap. 1. 
ysis ; C 
Chap. V 
" Menta 
referenc 
this sul 
Tliep | UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. | hiage.are;- 

*■ iq^^m^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^si ° s anti t0 ac " 

curate ] i in speaking 

and in writing. 

2. The student is thoroughly trained in the analysis and in the con- 
struction of words, of phrases, and of sentences. For each step in the con- 
struction of sentences, definite rules are given, with numerous examples 
both as to what must be done, in order 'that the sentence shall be 
comet, and as to what must not be done, in order to avoid those errors 
which writers of the English language have habitually committed. 

3. This work contains a section on the Ellipsis, or contraction of 
lano-unge, in which this hitherto neglected subject i^ reduced to a science 

4. This work contains a system of Punctuation, more ample and 
more minute than any accessible to t!>e majority of students. 

5. This work contains a complete system of Grammar, founded on its 
true basis — Logic and Rhetoric : so that Grammar, thus presented, be- 
comes one of the exact sciences. In this system of Grammar careful 

o. 



distinction is made between the attributes or properties of words, and the 
means or modifications by which these attributes are made known, and 
Syntax, both rhetorical and grammatical, is fully discussed. 

6. Chapter V. of this work is equivalent to any of the ordinary 
text books on Rhetoric ; hence, Chapter £11. (Constructive Rhetoric), 
whic i is not to be found in any other work, and Chapter V. (Ornamental 
Rhetoric) f< rm the most complete treatise on Rhetoric now offered to the 
public. 

7. This work insures that the student shall have an accurate knowl- 
edge of the true meaning of the expressions, mood , feeling , idea, thought, 
and that he shall feel and know that it is because man has these that he 
needs and uses language. 

8. Every term belonging to the Science of Language, is defined, both 
literally and really, and its analysis is given. If these analyses, as they 
occur, be carefully studied, the student will be able to analyze readily a 
large portion of the words belonging to our language. An eminent 
teacher, who has tried this method during the past year, alluding to 
it, says, " I am satisfied that, heretofore, I have paid too little attention 
to the terms belonging to the sciences which 1 have taught. During the 
past year, 1 have saved time and labor by making each term, as it occurred, 
an o v ject of special study — first as to its meaning in itself, and second, as 
to its fitness for the purpose for which it was u^ed. 

9. This System is peculiarly adapted to Family Instruction, and to 
private or personal study. 

10. Public Speakers, as Clergymen, Lecturers, Lawyers, etc., will 
find in this System a sure guide to the correct extempore construction 
of every form of expression — both the amplified and the contracted — 
in which a thought can be expressed The rules to be observed for this 
are few, simple and obvious, and fully exemplified. 

11. This is. perhaps, the only System, in which tue English language 
can be fully and expeditiously mastered without a teacher. 

12. This work contains over six hundred pages, and is offered, at 
retail, for$l 25— being the cheapest text-book now published. 

TERMS : 

Books, for introduction, will be furnished at the usual discounts. 

We frequently receive inquiries somewhat like the following : — '• Where 
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" Our Board of Education and myself wish to examine Prof. Crutten- 
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will pay the Express charges." — A. B, Superintendent 

Answer. — Write, stating your official position, — as Superintendent, 
Commissioner, Trustee, Committee, Principal, Teacher, etc., and enclose 
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Address, Woolworth, Ainsworth & Co.. 51 John St., N. Y. 
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From WARREN T. WEBSTER, A.M., late Prin. of Edward Little Inttiv***, 
Auburn, Maine, and Prof, of Greek and Latin in Adelphi Academy, 
Brooklyn, N. Y. 

It gi^es me much pleasure to state that I have been acquainted with Prof. 
Cruttenden's system of teaching for several years, and within the past three 
Fears have studied it carefully, and have also used it to some extent in my 
ieaching. It is based upon a few simple principles which are easily made 
nwuiliar. 

I can cheerfully and conscientiously commend Prof. Cruttenden's System 
of Language, and also of .Arithmetic, both the Objective and the Subjective, to 
those teachers who feel the ne**d of better works on these important subjects. 



Extract from a letter written by A. G. MERWIN, Prin. of Public School No. 24, 
Brooklyn, N. Y. 
"I had begun to think that possibly your system of language might, after 
all, be better, on account of the enthusiasm of its defenders, rather than any 
inherent elements of strength. My observation in different places, for the last 
few months, goes to confirm me that its excellence is in the system itself. You 
know how it is : we start with facts, establish our theory; but then we can never 
rest till we have gone backward again from our theory to facta. I have pretty 
nearly done this now." 



From Prof. S. S. PACKARD, Packard;* Business College and English Training 
School, New York City. 

Dear Sir : I cannot withhold my thanks for the excellent entertainment and 
instruction comprised in your short Course of Lectures before our young men. 
It is something to be able to hold the attention of a class of students, who have 
not studied the subject, upou a -theme generally considered so uninteresting as 
that of Language ; and yet I am free to say that your success was perfect ; and 
that I have never known more practical, lasting truths to be enforced in so short 
a time. 

Your work on the " Philosophy of Language," I have carefully examined, 
and believe its name to be well chosen. If you have not hit the true " Philosophy 
of Language," I do not know where to look for it. 

The same excellence which distinguishes your work on language, marks your 
Arithmetical Series, throughout which the tracings of a master-hand are discern- 
ible. I wish you abundant success, wherever you may labor, for I know yon 
will deserve it. 



From L. W. HALLOCK, A.M., Professor of Mathematics, Ft. Edward Collegiate 
Institute, N. Y. 
Friend Cruttendek : I have examined your Arithmetic No. 3, and think ft 
the best in the United States. 



A copy for examination can be obtained at the Publisher's Office, Number 51 John 
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AMERICAN SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS. 

RHETORICAL GRAMMAR 

OP THE 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 

ARRANGED IN A 

SUBJECTIVE AND ANALYTIC SECOND COURSE, 

DESIGNED TO ASSIST THE STUDENT IN MASTERING THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE 
AND ITS APPLICATIONS. 

By D.tfH^CRUTTENDEN, A.M., 

A.UTHOR AND ORIGINATOR OF A SERIES OP ARITHMETICS IN TWO COUR3ES; THIS 
FIRST COURSE (PUBLISHED 1819), AND THE SECOND COURSE (1844). 

" I had rather speak five words with my understanding, that by my voice I 
might teach others also, than ten thousand words in an unknown tongue. 1 ' 

1 Cor. xiv, 19. 

" If I know not the meaning of the voice, I shall "be unto him that speaketh 
a barbarian, and he that speaketh shall be a barbarian unto me." -Ibid. ver. 11. 

REVISED EDITION. 







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Entered, according to an Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by 

D. H. CRUTTENDEN, A.M., 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 



LANGUAGE PREFACE. 



In this Work, we have attempted to show two things ; — 
First, That the Science of Language is one of " The Exact Sciences." 
Second, That the Science of Language is neither a human invention 
nor the " Result of Human Usages." 



L LANGUAGE, AN EXACT SCIENCE. 

Thought-Language or Speech is one of God's good gifts to mankind. 
He gave Voice or Vocal power to mankind and to certain brutes nearly 
alike ; but to man alone he gave the power of Speech, and this distin- 
guishes him from the brute. Language was created subject to certain 
laws or principles, which no human usage can change; so that lan- 
guage is correct, when it is used according tO'those laws, in accordance 
with which it was created, and it is incorrect, when it contradicts those 
laws. In studying, it is necessary — First, to observe the essential 
elements of language, or that which the language is used to express, in 
order to find what these elements are ; also wherein relations exist 
between these elements, and wherein relations between them do not 
exist; and also, what effects are produced by establishing relations 
between these elements, or by their unification. Second, it is necessary 
to observe what relations exist between that which is expressed, 
and the language^which is used in its expression — between that which is 
contained, and that which contains it, so that we may always be observ- 
ing and learning in the order of causes and their effects. Thus, we shall 
be enabled to discover those essential principles or laws of language, ac- 
cording to which all constructions of language must be framed, in order 
that the thought shall be correctly expressed ; and again, these principles, 
or laws shall be the true test of the correctness or accuracy of a given 
expression. That is, the one possessing a knowledge of these principles, 
would prove or disprove a given expression, by showing that it correctly 



4 LANGUAGE PREFACE. 

or incorrectly expresses the thought which it was constructed to express ; 
just as the correctness of a mathematical proposition is tested by com- 
paring the statement with those quantities and their relations which the 
statement was intended to express, instead of quoting what mathematical 
writers have said upon that subject. Thus, no one attempts to disprove 
the assertion "three time two are seven," by quoting what the commu- 
nity generally, and what A, B, C, and all other mathematical writers 
have said on that subject ; because, by a shorter and more positive proof, 
he may take three times two of those quantities which are equal to six of 
those quantities. Just so, the correctness or the incorrectness of any 
expression of a human thought may be shown, by comparing it with its 
thought or essential element. This is the true test, whether it be in ac- 
cordance with the usage of a community, or be not in accordance with 
that usage ; whether it be asserted, or it be contradicted by all the au- 
thors who have written on that subject. 

Language, like all God's other works, must exhibit every sign of that 
order which its all- wise Creator, the God of order, could impress upon it. 

21. LANGUAGE JSfOT THE RESULT OF HUMAN USAGE. 

If language be the result of human usage, that is, if the essential laws 
of language can be changed and modified by human will, then human 
usages are superior to the power which created and established the essen- 
tial laws of language ; but every one admits that many expressions are 
in common use, which are by no means to be imitated, or repeated by 
those who would use the language with correctness and with propriety ; 
and, also, that there are many other expressions which are condemned 
by some and tolerated by others, simply because, some good speakers and 
good writers are in the habit of using them ; and, finally, that there are 
many expressions which are not condemned, although we feel that they 
ought to be, simply because the general principles which they violate are 
not fully understood and familiarly made known. 

THE USE OF LANGUAGE ALWAYS SUPPOSES TWO 
PARTIES. 

The use of Language always supposes two parties ; thfc Narrator, who 
is the speaker, or the writer, and the Narratee, who is the hearer, or the 
reader. 

In all cases, the speaker or the writer is the Narrator, whether he 
speak or write, induced by a desire to learn, or to be told ; or whether he 
be induced by a desire to tell, or to teach. Whether he uses the lan- 
guage interrogatively, responsively, or historically, he is alike the Narra- 
tor ; while, in like manner, the hearer, or the reader, is at all times alike 
the Narratee. 



LANGUAGE PREFACE. O 

The language used by the Narrator, is called the Narration ; while, 
the ideal (idea, group of ideas, or thoughts), which is expressed by the 
Language, is the Subject or the Logicanpart of that Narration. The Nar- 
ration and its ideal or logical part are the Narrative. 

CONSTRUCTION" OB SYNTHESIS THE MOST IMPOR- 
TANT PART OF THIS SCIENCE. 

Now, the most important part of the Science of Language consists of 
three parts — First, that wherein the Narrator is taught to construct the 
ideal or the logical part properly, and to distinguish it clearly, both in its 
elements and as a whole ; Second, that, for this ideal or logical part, to 
construct an expression which shall be rhetorically correct ; and T.iird, 
that this rhetorical expression shall be grammatically accurate. 

ANALYSIS THE NATURAL RESULT OF CONSTRUC- 
TION OR SYNTHESIS. 

Whoever is a good Narrator can easily become a good Narratee ; 
since he who can construct or put together skillfully, with comparatively 
little study, can learn to analyze or to reduce to parts skillfully. It should 
be borne in mind that the ability to construct is necessarily followed by 
the ability to analyze, while the ability to analyze is not necessarily fol- 
lowed by the ability to construct. 

The Narratee finds the ideal of an expression by three processes ; 
First, he must examine the expression grammatically, to find the attri- 
butes or properties of each word, and by means of these, the grammati- 
cal class to which each word in the expression belongs ; Second, by know- 
ing the grammatical class of each word, he can determine its rhetorical 
use or office, and by means of these uses or offices, the kind of sentence 
which is contained in the expression ; Third, the construction of the 
sentence will enable him to discover the ideal or logical value of the 
expression. ] 

From what has been said above, we observe that ;— 

lirst ; The Narrator is a logician, a rhetorician, a grammarian. 

Second ; The Narratee is a grammarian, a rhetorician, a logician. 

D. H. CRUTTENDEN. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Title-page and Copyright 1,2 

Preface 3-5 | 



PAGE. 

Table of Contents 6,7 

Suggestions to Teachers 8 



CHAPTER I.— INTRODUCTORY. 



PAGE. 

Sc'ence of Language— Outline 9 

Definitions of Language. Essential, 

Literal, etc 9 

General Names of Language— Narra- 
tor, Narration, Narratee, Subject of 

Narration 10 

Unit, Element, Ultimate Element, 

Immediate Element, 11 

Intermediate Element, Analysis, 
Synthesis, Syntax or Composition . . 12 
E: sentials of Language — Moods (Feel- 
ings, Passions, Emotions). 13 

Ideals— Ideas, Notions, Perceptions 14 

Ideas, Classification of 15 

Unrelated 15 

Related 16 

Principal, Subordinate 16 

Co-ordinate, Primary. IT 

First, Second, Third Primary. . . 18 

Relations of 18 

Natural, Artificial, Incidental. 19 

Groups of — Elements 20 

Classifications 21 



PAGE. 

Essentials— Ideals (Continued) 

Thoughts— Definitions 22 

Elements— First Primary 23 

Second, Third Primary, Subor- 
dinate 24 

delations in Thought 25 

Idea of Connection 26 

Classification as to Formation. 27 
Simple. Compound, Connected, 28 
Complex, Degrees of Com- 
pound 29 

Class'n according to Relations. . 30 

Dependent, Independent 30, 31 

Classifications of Language 32 

Mood Language 32 

Elements -Bodily, 32 

Vocal— Key, Quantity, etc 33 

Syntax — Exclamative, Imper. 34 

Interrogative, Responsive, etc. 35 

Emphasis of an Expression]. . . 36 

Thought or Essential Language 37 

Logical, Rhetorical and Grammatical 

Uses of Language 37, 38 



CHAPTER II.— THE LOGIC OF LANGUAGE. 



PAGE. 

Outline .- 39 

The Definition. The Formulas 39 

Modes of Finding the Essentials — 

Single Idea 40 

Group of Ideas— Simple Thought, 41-43 



PAGE. 

Connected Compound Thought— 
Mixed Compound Thought. . . 44, 45 

Dependent and Independent 
Thoughts 46-48 



CHAPTER III.— CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. 



PAGE. 

Definition of Rhetoric 49 

Constructive Rhetoric — Outline 49 

Definitions 49 

Words— Definitions— Natural 50 

Definitions— Literal. Real. 51 

Phrases- Elements, Word, etc 52 

Construction— Uses 53, 54 

Classification 55, 56 

Sentences— Definitions 57 

Elements 58-60 

Subjects .. 61 

Deiinitions 61 

Relations of, to Sentences 62 

Selection of (33 

Ellipsis of 64 

Syntax of 65 

Analyses of 66 

Errors in use and selection of. 66-69 

Predicates 70 

Relations 70 

Forms 71 

Void's 72 



PAGE. 

Sentences— Elements — Predicates. 

Ellipsis— Syntax 74, 75 

Analyses 75 

Errors in Use 76 

Direct Objects 77-81 

Relators 82-86 

Indirect Objects 87-92 

Adjunct? 93 

Definitions 93 

Relative 94 

Relations of 95 

Selection of 96 

Ellipsis and Syntax of 97-98 

Analyses of 99 

Errors in use of 100 

Quantity, etc 101 

Time, Order, etc 102, 103 

Personators 1U4-109 

Connectors 110-115 

Exclamatives 116, 117 

Examples in Offices of Words 118 

Cl.ifwS cations. Simple 119-120 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Sentences— Classifications (Continued) 

Connected 122 

Complex or Mixed 123-126 

Compound. First, etc. Degrees 127-128 
Second Classification— Independent 129 

Dependent, etc 130 

Primary Dependent Clause 131 

Secondary— General Law 132 

Special Contractions 133 

Compound Contractions, etc 134 



PAGE. 

Punctuation. Definition 135 

Characters used— Periods 136 

Colon, Semicolon 137, 138 

Comma 139. 140 

Quotation, Dash 141, 142 

Parenthesis, Brackets 143 

Contractive Characters 144-146 

Reference " 147,148 

Pronunciation " 149, 150 

Exercises 151, 152 



CHAPTER IV.— GRAMMAR. 



PAGE. 

Outline. Definitions 153 

Divisions 154 

Etymology and Syntax 154-156 

Grammatical Syntax 157 

Parts of Speech 157 

Tables, Grammar — Rhetoric 158-159 

Nouns 160 

Definitions 160 

Classifications 161-164 

Attributes 165 

Gender 166-169 

Person 170,171 

Number 172-178 

Case 179-184 

Declension 184 

Syntax— Cases 186-188 

Analysis.... 189-191 

Pronouns — Definitions 192 

Classification 193, 194 

Attributes, Declension 195-197 

Rules for Attributes — 198 

Analysis 199, 200 

Adjectives— Definitions 201 

Classifications 201 

Proper, etc 22 

Descriptive, etc 203 

Definite, etc 204 

Numeral 205 

Indefinite 2 6 

Designative 207-212 

Articles 213 

Attributes 214-217 

Declension 218-223 

Rules for Attributes 224 228 

Analysis S2:-229 

Verbs— Definitions . 230 

Classifications— Word— Phrase . .231-233 

Transitive 234 

Intransitive 235 

Regular, 236 

Uncontracted, etc 23*7 

Irregular 233-241 

Attributes 242 

Active Voice 243 

Passive Voice 244 

Means of Knowing Voices 245 

Person and Number 246-219 

Mode 350 

Infinitive .. 251,252 

Participial 253, 254 

"" Indicative 255 

Imperative 256 

Potential 257 

Subjunctive £58 

How Known 259, 260 



PAGE. 

Verbs— Attributes (Continued) 

Tenses 261, 262 

Present, etc 263 

Indefinite 264-278 

Definite 279-285 

Conjugation 286, 287 

Infinitive Mode 288 

Indicative -Mode 289-292 

Imperative Mode 293 

Potential Mode 294, 295 

Subjunctive Mode 296-301 

Outline, Synopsis 302-303 

Rules f->r Attributes 304. 305 

Analysis 306, 307 

Adverbs— Definition 308 

Classifications 309-311 

Attributes 312 

Comparison 313-316 

Rules for Attributes 317 

Analysis 318,319 

Prepositions— Definitions 320 

Classification 321-325 

Syntax, Analysis, 326-327 

Conjunctions—Definitions 328 

Classification 329 

Syntax, Analysis 330-332 

Exclamations— Definitions 333 

Classification 334, 335 

Analysis 336 

Grammatical Classification 337 

Terms Commonly Used 338, 339 

Orthoepy and Orthography 340 

Orthoepy 340 

Nomenclature— Organs of Voice 340 

Organs of Speech, etc 3+1 

Enunciation, etc 342 

Classifications 343 

Orthography 344 

Nomenclature— Letters -:44 

Alphabet 345 

Ideographic 346 

Phonographic, etc 317 

Graphic Spelling. 348 

Classification of Letters 349 

According to Importance 349 

Form, Size 350-351 

Sound 352,353 

Exercises in Capitalizing, etc 3~4 

Orthoepy and Orthography 355 

Syllabication 355 

Classification as to Syllabication. . . . 356 

as to Formation 357 

as to Derivation 358, 359 

Olv.1 mid Wriiten Exercises. . . . 36<\ 361 



8 



The study of Language may be commenced with an Objective 
and Synthetic First Course Lesson somewhat like the following;— 



Teacher. [Holding up a hat] Have I 
anything in my hand ? 

Pupils. Yes, sir. You have something 
in your hand. 

T. You may close your eyes. {Turning 
the hat- upside down.] Now you may open 
your eyes. What is in my hands now ? 

P. You have a hat in your hand. 

T. Is it the same you first saw, or is it 
another hat ? 

P. It is the same hat, but ym hold it in 
a different way ; it is the otb',-r side up, etc. 

T. How do you know it is the same hat ? 

P. Why we can see it. 

T. Yea, you do see i', as it is now, but 
/ou do not see it a& yo * saw it before your 
eyes were shut; ho>; then do you know 
that it is the same b-.t ? 

P. We remembp ; how the hat looked be- 
fore our eyes w.irrshut, and this look? just 
like it. 

T. You see ihe hat as I now hold it, with 
your real ey e. The hat as you remember ; 
it is in yo'ir mind. You see it with th' j 



aiind's ere. The hat, which I hold in v y *' J. ir mouths 



P. The image or picture hat, which we 
have in our minds is called the idea hat or 
the notion hat. 

T. Now you may talk about the idea hat 
or the notion hat. 

P. The idea or the notion hat, is the im- 
age or picture hat, which we have in ou* . 
minds. 

T. How many hats have we now ? 

P. We bv<» two hats, the object bat or 
the real hat* and the idea or notion hat. 

T. Talk wont the object hat. — the 
notion hAt idea hat. real hat. 

P. Tht f rject hat is, etc., the notion hat 
is, etc Jicquire the pupils to state the 
term at * 4 > oeginning of each definition.) 

T. f} Q'ding up the hat.] What do you 
lean? p f iooking at this object? 

P v e «ou_ a idea of the hat, we get a 
no' .' f of the hat. 

? . nThai is the name of your idea or no- 
fc ' * c i this object. 

' . iiat, hat, haL 

/'. Wnat do you say ? vVhat have you in 



lands 3 .id which you see, is the Oject > i 
>r the Real hat. [Teacher writes the *v* p a 
ftject and real on the board and mrirze 
then, See p. 15]. What is the hst s>jJjG, 
wr /eh i hold in my hand ? 

P. The hat which you hold in 1 ^v nand 
is the object hat or the real hat. 

T. Talk about the object ha' • e »he real 
hat. 

P. The object hat or tbc/j/ ia is the 
one which we can hold in *uv h» ids, vtich 
we can see, which we can wear. 

T. Do you know par thing about any 
flther kind of hat ? 

P. We do. The *»' (»«iich we remember, 
ihe hat which w«» Y& <j in our minds, the 
iiat which we se^ ?vit a our mind's eye. [Pu- 
pils give differePi answers.] 

T. The ir.a ^e or picture hat, which you 
hav« in yo> ,r inmus is the Idea hat or the 
HfoP*v-\v-X 1.1 eacher writes and analyzes 
ihe word*, idta, notion. See p. 20.] What 
"is t&9 f«w^0<j or picture hat called which 
;ou / j .'o in yonr minds ? 



We said hat, we have the word hat in 
our mouths. 

1 . Now how many hats have we ? 

J-. We have three hats. The real or ob- 
ject hat, the idea hat and the word hat. 

T. [Drawing the outline of a hat.] flfhat 
is this ? 

P. A hat, picture of a hat, etc. 

T. Now how many hats have we ? 

P. We have four hats. The real hat, th 
idea hat, the word hat and the picture hat. 

T. [Writes the word hat ] What is this 

P. Hat. The word hat. 

T Does it differ from the other word hat f 

P. It does. The other is the spoken word 
hat, this is the written word hat. 

T. How many hats have we now ? 

P. We have five hats now. The real or 
object hat, the idea hat, the spoken word 
hat, the picture hat and the written word 
hat. 

T. Very well. Now you may turn to tha 
15th page and read there what you find 
about io't'ta. 



LANGUAGE. 

Subjective and Analytic. 
Second 1 Course. 

CHAPTER I.— Introductory. 

Outline. The Science of language includes ; 

I. Definitions of Language; 
II. General Names or Terms of Language; 

III. Essentials of Language; 

IV. Classifications of Language; 

V. Language Logically, Rhetorically and Grammati- 
cally discussed. 

I. The Definitions. 

1. Real or Essential Definition. The term, Language, 
is the name given to any means by ivhich our moods or 
feelings, and oar thoughts are expressed, and, also, to the 
science and art of exjwessing them. 

Note. This Series of Works on Languoee comprises two Courses ; the First 
Course contains Beading Lessons, each of which is to be read after its subject 
matter has been presented in Oral lessons, with Exercises on blackboards, 
slates, etc. The Second Course presents the same matter as a Science. Each 
Course may be had bound separately, or bound together. Compilers are re- 
quested to see p. 2, copyright. 

(9) 



10 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. 

Literal Definition. The word, language, means something 
made or done by the tongue. 

Analysis. Language, e, something ; ag=ac, done, made, pro- 
duced ; langu=lingu, by or with the tongue. (See Dictionary, lin- 
gual, linguist.) 



II. General Names or Terms. 

3. The General names or Terms belonging to language 
are Narrator, Narration, Narratee, Subject of Narration, 
Unit, Elements, Analysis, and Synthesis, Syntax or Com- 
position. 

3. The Narrator is the speaker or the writer. 

Lit. Def. The word narrator, means one who tells. 
Anal. Narrator, or, the office of ; t, one who ; (a), see Ch. III., 
Euphony ; narr. tells, describes, speaks or writes. 

Note I. The Narrator, as a speaker, may be known by several 
names ; as talker, lecturer, orator, preacher, teacher, etc. 

As a writer, he is known as an author, essayist, composer, etc. 

4. The. Narration is that which has been spoken or 
written by the narrator. 

Lit. Def. The word, narration, means the condition of that 
which has been told. See narrator. 

Anal. Narration, ion — being, condition of, science of ; (a)t t 
— ; narr, — . 

5. The Narratee is the hearer or the reader. 

Lit. Def. The word, narratee, means the one to whom som& 
thing has been spoken or written. 

A nal. Narratee. ee, to whom ; narr at, ■ 

©. The Subject of narration is that concerning which 

the narration is made by the narrator. 

Lit. Def. The word, subject, means that which .has been put 
under. 

Anal. Subject, t, that which ;jec, has been put or placed ; sub, 
under. That is, as a foundation or basis. 

Note 1. Students should be required to give the Literal with the Real def- 
inition : and also, to analyze the terras ; because the Literal definition of a 
Scientific term enables its possessor both to retain and recall the Essential mean* 
inl£ (Special instructions in these are given in Chapters III, and VI., Phil, of 
Lang.) 



GENERAL NAMES OR TERMS. 11 

Note I. Narrations are ; Objective and Subjective. 

An Objective narration is one, in which, an object is shown and 
then, its names, uses, etc., are told. 

A Subjective narration is one, in which, the names, uses, etc., 
of an object are told, and then, the object itself, is shown. 

The narrator narrates a narration about the subject of narration 
to the narratee. 

■?. A Unit is an object, or a group of objects taken as 

one. 

Lit. Def. The word, unit, means what is taken as one, or that 
which is one. 

Anal. Unit. (i)t, that which [is] ; un, one, whole. 

Thus, each State is a unit when it is taken as one ; but if the 
United States be taken as the unit or as one, each State is a part 
or an element of that unit. See definition of Unit in First, or 
Second Course Arithmetic by the author of this work. 

8. The term, Element, is the name for the parts of 
which a Unit is made or composed. 

Lit. Def. The word, element means that which is taken as a 
part. 

Anal. Element, ent, that which is ; lem=lim, line ; e=ex, from, 
out ; as in Geometry, surfaces and solids are bounded by lines ; 
while the elements of a line are a point and motion. * (See Arith. 
Nos. II. and III.) 

Thus, the Elements of this work are chapters, sections, sentences, 
words and letters. 

9. Elements are of three kinds ; Ultimate, Immediate, 
and Intermediate. 

1 0. The Ultimate Elements are those which are the 

lowest or simplest parts of a unit. 

Lit. Def. The word, Ultimate, means belonging to the last, the 
end. 

Anal. Ultimate, ate, belonging to ; m, most, very ; ult, remote, 
first, or last. That is, the most remote, the very first, or the very 
last. (See Diet., ultraist.) 

Thus the ultimate elements of this work are its letters, figures, 
and marks of punctuation. 

11. The Immediate Elements are the last elements en- 
faring into the unit y or, those, from which the unit is di- 
rectly formed. 

Lit. Def. The word, immediate, means that which is not be- 
tween. 



12 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. 

Anal. Immediate, ate, belonging to ; med(i), middle ; im=in % 
not. 

Tims, the immediate elements of the word, notwithstanding, 
are the words, not, with, standing. 

12. Intermediate elements are those which come be* 
tween the Ultimate and the Immediate Elements. 

Lit. Def. The word, intermediate, means that which is between. 

Intermediate, mediate, ; ter, three ; in, among. That is, 

the middle one of three. So in our word, between ; en, state of; 
twe=two, two ; be==by 7 beside. 

13. Analysis is the operation of separating the unit 
into its parts or elements. 

Lit. Def. The word, analysis, means re-loosening or separating. 

Anal. Analysis. is=ic=ion, being, science of ; s=t, ; ly=lu 

=lo, loose ; Ana=re, again. 

As when we separate this work [unit] into its chapters [imme- 
diate elements] ; each chapter into sections, which are immediate 
elements of chapters and intermediate elements of the work ; each 
section into sentences, etc., to sounds, or to letters, which are im- 
mediate elements of words and the ultimate elements of the work. 

Note 1. The Analysis of a unit into its immediate elements is 
called the Immediate analysis of the unit ; into its intermediate 
elements, the Intermediate analysis, and into its ultimate elements, 
the Ultimate analysis. 

14. Synthesis, Syntax, or Composition are names 
given to the process of joining the parts or elements in the 
formation of a unit. 

Lit. Def. The words, synthesis, syntax, composition, mean the 
science and art of putting together. 

Anal. Synthesis, Syntax, Composition, is=ion, being, exist- 
ence or state of, condition of, or in titles, science of, art of ; t, one 
who, that which ; e,=i, for euphony ; th,=pos, puts, places ; syn,= 
com=con, together. 

Sometimes narrations are divided into Synthetic and Analytic. 

A Synthetic narration is one in which two objective narrations 
are first given, and, then, the relations between these two are 
shown. 

An Analytic narration is one in which the Unit is defined ae a 
subject, which is divided into its parts and each part in its order is 
taken as a new subject. 



ESSENTIALS OF LANGUAGE. 13 

III. The Essentials of Language. 

1. The Essentials of Language is a term given to 
those moods (feelings, passions, emotions), and also to 
those ideals (ideas, groups, thoughts), which the language 
is used to express. 

Lit. Def. The word, essential, means belonging to the being 
within. 

Anal. Essential. (i)al, belonging to ; t, that which [is the] ; sen, 
meaning, idea; es=en, in, within. 

3. Mood is the name for a state or a condition of the 

spirit. 

Lit. Def. The word, mood, means, that which moves, excites. 

Anal. Mood. {o)d.=t, one who, that which ; mo, moves, stirs. 
Let the student analyze motion, motor, etc. A euphonic element 
is put in a parenthesis. 

Thus, we speak of a person as being in a pleasant or joyous 
mood, an unpleasant or sad mood, in an ordinary mood, in an ex- 
traordinary mood, etc. ; pleasant feelings, sad feelings, etc. 

3. The Moods maybe divided into Feelings, Emotions, 
Passions. 

Note 1. The terms, Feeling, Emotion, Passion are commonly 
used without much distinction as to their meaning, save that Emo- 
tions and Passions are more intense or extraordinary feelings. I 
call them Moods, and suggest the differences named above, and de- 
scribed below. 

4t. The term,) Feeling, is applied to the ordinary condi- 
tions of the spirit. 

Lit. Def. The word, feeling, means action, or being belonging 
to the mover, or continuing to move. 
. Anal. Feeling, ing, action of continuing ; feel, to move. 

Thus, our feelings in regard to our ordinary or common 
thoughts, exercises, business, vocation, etc. 

5. The term, Emotion, is used to name a strong mood, 

feeling, or desire for impart biy or giving. 

Thus, emotions of pity lead to deeds of charity. Moved by 
hatred or revenge, we do evil to others. 

Lit. Def. The word, emotion, means moving out. 

Anal. Emotion, tion, (see Narration) ; mo, (see Mood) ; e= 

ex, out. 

O. The term, Passion, is used to name a strong mood^ 

feeling, or desire for receiving, or for possessing. 



14 INTRODUCTOPvY. [CHAP. I. 

Lit. Def. The word, passion means the state of receiving. 
Anal. Passion, ion, the state of, condition of, office of ; s=t, 
that which ; pas==pat, receives. 

Ideals. 

1 . Ideal is the name given to what we have learned by 
giving attention to objects and also to continuations of 
what we have thus learned. Or, an Ideal is any unit 
whose ultimate elements are ideas. 

This definition includes : first, the process of getting ideas {Or- 
iginal Ideas) ; and second, the mental process of finding what one 
idea has to do with another idea. This second process is called 
Thinking. 

Lit. Def. The word, ideal means, belonging to ideas. 

'Anal. Ideal, at, belonging to, having the property of ; idea, 
see below. 

Note 1. It must be borne in mind, that the term, Object, means 
any being or existence to which the attention is directed for the 
purpose of learning from it, and that this object may be a material, 
or an immaterial being or existence. It may be the mind itself, 
hence called an Internal Object; or, it may be something not be- 
longing to the mind, hence called an External Object. 

When this being is not an object of the attention, our idea of 
it is called in the English, Thing ; in the Greek, Ghrama ; and in 
the Latin, J^egotium. 

In regard to the meaning of the term, Object, two serious mis- 
takes are frequently made ; first, that by the term, Object, a mater- 
ial existence is always meant. This is an error, because we learn 
from immaterial as from material objects. The second error is, 
that words are names of the objects themselves, instead of being 
the names of our ideas of these objects. (See Ch. III. Definitions 
of words, phrases and sentences, also Ch. III. and VI. Philosophy* 
of Language.) 

So Ideals are divided into three kinds ; Ideas, N~otionsp 
Perceptions, or Percepts / Groups of Ideas, and Thoughts. 

Ideas. 
3. The terms, Idea, Notion, and PepvCeption, are 
names given to the first or 'ultimate elements of our knowl- 
edges as these elements are learned from objects. (See 
Chap. VI., Acquired Knowledge.) 



- CLASIFIOATION OV IDEAS. 15 

Lit. Def. The word, idea, means that which is the same. 

The word, notion, means something known or marked. 

The word, perception, means something which has been taken or 
received through [the senses]. 

Anal. Idea 1 , ea, that which is ; id, the same ; as, a mental image 
or a picture. (See Ch. VI., Ideas.) 

Notion, tion, ; no, known, marked. (See Arith., dota- 
tion.) % 

Perception, tion, ; cep=cap, taken ; per, by, through. That 

is, something that has been taken by or through the receptive focal- 
ties. (See Ch. VI., Receptive Faculties.) 

Thus, when a tree becomes an object of attention, we get an 
idea of it as a being or existence, and, next an idea of one or more 
of its properties ; form, size, etc., (as beings or existences) ; and then 
either we do, or we do not discover that our^i&eas of the properties 
belong to our idea of the bein^ or existence itself. Of these 
three kinds of ideas, the idea of tie tree is the principal, our ideas 
of its properties are of a lower order or grade than the principal, 
and what an idea of the lower order has to do with the principal 
idea, is an idea of Relation, which we have discovered between the 
lower and the principal. ^ 

Classification of Ideas. 
4. Ideas, according to their relations, are divided 
into two kinds ; Unrelated and Related Ideas. 

IS. Unrelated Ideas are ; firs % an idea taken alone / 
second, one of several ideas, no one of which belongs to 
another one of them, or is to be taken with another one. 

Lit. Def. The word, unrelated, signifies the state of something 
not carried back to another. 

Anal* Unrelated, ed. state of ; i, that which ; la, has been 
carried ; re, back ; un, not. 

Thus, the first idea of being or existence is an Unrelated Idea, 
and so must remain until its relation to another idea has been 
found. So the ideas suggested by the words, virtue, Asia, star, 
are Unrelated Ideas ; because, no one of them belongs to the 
others. 

Note 1. Hereafter, the letter, I, standing alone, will be used 
to signify ftn Unrelated Idea, and two, or more I's, separated by 
periods, to signify Unrelated Ideas. 

1 Note. TUe author reminds his renders, that the intention of these analy- 
ses is to trace each word to the elements or parts used in its formation. By 
whom these words have open used, as, Greeks, Hebrews, etc., is of no import- 
ance, whatever, in these analyees. 



16 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. 

G. Related Ideas are several ideas ; each of which be- 
longs to one, or more of the others, so that these element 
ideas form a unit. 

Thus, the ideas suggested by the expression, men of wealthy 
. are, Belated Ideas ; because, each, of them has something to do 
with one, or more than one jpf the others. The idea, men, is the 
Chief or Principal idea of being or existence ; the idea, toealth, is 
an idea belonging to the idea, men ; and the idea, of, is the idea 
that the latter belongs to the former. 

Again, the ideas suggested by the expression boys run, are Re- 
lated Ideas ; because the idea, boys, has something to do with the 
idea, run, and the idea, run, has something to do with the idea, 
boys. That is, the idea boys, is the cause, producer, actor, doer, 
maintainer, etc. of 'the action, run; the idea, run, is the action, 
caused, produced, etc. by the actfcrs, boys ; and what each has to do 
with the other, is the Idea of Relation between them. The ex- 
pression, boys run, contains three ideas ; one of an actor, one of an 
action, and one of relation. 

The ideas suggested by the expression girls pick flowers, are 
Related Ideas ; because, each has something to do with one, or 
more than one of the others. That is, the idea, girls, is the cause 
or producer of the action pick ; the idea, pick, is the action caused 
by the actors, girls ; what the ideas, girls, pick, are to each other is 
the Relation between the actors, girls, and the action pick ; the idea, 
pick, is the action received by the idea, floioers, and the idea, flow- 
ers, are the receivers of the action, pick. Hence, the expression, 
girls pick flowers, suggests five ideas ; one of an actor, one of an 
action, one of a receiver, and two of relation. 

7. Related Ideas include Principal, Subordinate, Co- 
ordinate, Primary Ideas, and Relations of Ideas or Rela- 
tions. 

8. A Principal Idea is an idea of a higher or<^er than 
the ideas to vihich it is related. 

Thus, in the expression, Mary's beautiful boquet oi flowers, the 
idea, boquet, is the Principal Idea ; because, its order is higher than 
that of any other idea to which it is related. 

Lit. Def. The word, principal, means belonging to the first or 
chief. 

Anal. Principal, al, belonging to ; cip=cap, taken ; prin=> 
prim, first. That is, that which is taken first or is the most impor- 
tant. (See Diet., Prime, Prince.) 

|>. A Subordinate Idea is an idea of a lower order 
than the idea, to which it is related. 

sub. sub. sub. 

Among the Related ideas, Mary's beautiful boquet of flowers, 



CLASSIFICATION OF IDEAS. 17 

the ideas, Mary's, beautiful, flowers, are subordinate to the princi- 
pal idea, boquet. 

Let capital I represent the principal idea, small i a subordinate 
idea, the star or asterisk f*J an idea of relation, and we have 
i *vi * I* i, which may be translated thus : i, Mary ; * *»; i, beau- 
tiful ; I, boquet ; *, of ; i, flowers. 

Among the related ideas, Mary's very beautiful boquet of 
choice flowers, the idea very is subordinate to the subordinate idea, 
beautiful ; and the idea, choice, is subordinate to the Subord. I., 
flowers. 

Lit. Def. The word, subordinate, means belonging to a lower 
order ; secondary, that which is next. 

Anal. Subordinate, e, belonging to ; (a)t, that which ; ordin, 
order, rank ; sub, lower, under. 

Note 1. Ideas subordinate to a principal are sometimes called 
Secondary ideas ; ideas subordinate to secondaries are called Ter- 
tiary or Sub-subordinate, etc. 

10. A Co-ordinate Idea is an idea of the same order 
as the idea to which it is related. 

Lit. Def. The word, co-ordinate means belonging to an equal 
rank. 

Anal. Co-ordinate, ordinate, ; co=con, together. (See 

subordinate.) 

Among the related ideas, Mary's very beautiful boquet of 
choice flowers, the ideas, Mary's, beautiful, flowers, are co-ordinate 
ideas ; because, they have the same order or rank, being subordin- 
ate to the same principal idea, boquet. The ideas, very, choice, are 
Co-ordinate ideas also. 

\ # { * i * I * « i # Translation ; i, Mary ; * 's ; i, very ; which is 
subordinate to the subord. i; beautiful ; etc. 

Among the related ideas, boys run, the actoifc boys, and its action 
run, are co-ordinate ideas, because they have the same order or 
rank. PI. Translation, I 1 , boys ; I, run 2 . 

Among the related ideas, Fannie studies her lessons, the action, 
studies, is co-ordinate with its actor, Fannie, and the receiver les 
sons, is co-ordinate w r ith the action, studies, which it receives. I 1 * 

J2 * I * p 

1 1. Primary Ideas are co-ordinate related ideas of an 
actor, its action and the receiver of an action, or of an 
actor and its action only. 

Lit. Def. The word, primary, means state of, or belonging to 
the first. 

Anal. Primary, ary, state of, office of, prim, first. 

Do men dig gold on the mountains cold? Men do dig gold on the 
mountains cold. Men, do dig, gold, are Primary ideas ; because 
they are co-ordinate related ideas of an actor, men ; of their ac- 
tion, do dig ; and of the receiver of the action, gold. 



18 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. 

12. Primary Ideas are divided into three kinds; First, 
Second, and Third Primary Ideas. 

13. The First Primary Idea is the Cause, Agent, 
Actor, Doer, FJxister, etc., which causes or maintains the 
action or state of existence. Hence, it is called the 
Actor. 

1. Boys Play. Do girls dance ? Pupils come to school. I am. 
He is. 

Boys, girls, pupils, I, Tie, are First primary ideas of Actors or 
Existers ; because, they are the producers, doers, etc., of actions or 
states of existence. 

14. The Second Primary idea is the action, or state 
of existence, which is caused or maintained by the First 
primary idea. Hence, it is called the Action. 

In ex. 1, play, do dance, come, am, is, are Second primary ideas ; 
because, they are the actions or states of existence caused or main- 
tained by the actors, boys, girls, pupils, I, he. 

15. The Third Primary Idea is the idea of that which 
receives the action. Hence it is called the Receiver of the 
action. 

'2. All students should study language. Language should be 
studied hy every student. 

In this example, language is the Third primary idea, because it 
is the receiver of the action, study. 

Note I. The Actor is called the First primary idea ; because, it 
is the origin or source of the action ; the Action is called the Sec- 
ond primary ; because, it must always be related to an antecedent 
actor or First primary ; the Receiver of the action is called the 
Third primary idea ; because, it must always be related to an an- 
tecedent action or Second primary. 

a. The lessons were recited by the students. The students re- 
cited the lessons. 

4. William put the money into his pocket. 

Note II. Notice carefully the difference between the receiver 
of an action, and the receiver of something which is not an action. 
Thus, in the example, William put the money into his pocket, 
money is the receiver of the action, put ; therefore it is the Third 
primary idea ; while pocket receives the money, which is not an 
action ; therefore, pocket is not a third primary idea or receiver. 

1 ©. A Relation of Ideas is an idea either that a 



RELATIONS OF IDEAS. * 19 

subordinate belongs to a principal, or that one co-ordinate 
is to be taken with another co-ordinate idea. 

17. Relations of Ideas according to their origin, are 
divided into three kinds ; Natural, Artificial and Inci- 
dental. 

1 8. A Natural Relation of ideas is a relation origin- 
JLing in the nature of the objects from which the ideas are 
learned. t 

Thus, the relation of color to an apple is a natural relation. 
Red apple ; heavy stone ; long stick, etc. 

Lit. Def. The word, natural, means belonging to birthright. 

Anal. Natural, al, belonging to ; ur, office, state of ; t, that 
which ; na, has been born, created. That is, belonging to that which 
has been created or born. (See Dictionary, Nativity, Nation; also, 
Aritlu No. III., Arithmetical Quantities.) 

10. An Artificial Relation of ideas is a relation 

originating in the possession or use of the objects from 

which the related ideas are learned. 

Lit. Def. The word, artificial, means something made by art. 

Anal. Artificial. (i)al, ; fic=±fac, made ; artii), by human 

skill. 

Thus, between the ideas, door, bell, an artificial relation is orig- 
inated by the habit of using them together, as door bell, John's 
property ; the property of John. 

20. An Incidental Relation of ideas is a relation 

originating in the position or order of the objects from 

which the ideas are learned. 

Lit. Def. The word, incidental means belonging to that which 
happens. 

A nal. Incidental, al, ; ent, that which ; cid=cad=cas t 

falls ; in, upon, among. 

Thus, in the related ideas, this book, that book, an incidental re- 
lation exists, arising from the position of the book in regard to the 
narrator. Former day, latter day ; first boy, second boy, third 
boy, etc. 

Note. 1. Two plans of forming related ideas may be observed ; 
first, using one principal idea with one, or more subordinate ideas 
and their relations, the number of relations being equal to the 
number of subordinate ideas ; second, using either two, or three 
primary ideas and their relations, with, or without subordinate 
ideas. The relations of the primary being one less, and the rela* 



20 TNTKODUCTOPwY. [CHAP. I. 

tions of the subordinate being the same as the number of related 
ideas. 

First Plan, i* i* I* i* i*. 

Second Plan. T* I 2 ; or, i* I 1 * I 2 * i. 

Third Plan. I 1 * l 2 * I 3 ; or, i* I 1 * I 2 * i* I 3 * i. 



Groups of Ideas. 

1. Outline. The Science of Groups of Ideas in- 
cludes ; first, the Definitions; second, the Elements; and 
third, the Classifications of Groups. 

2. A Geo up of Ideas is three, or more related ideas, one 
of which is the Principal ; one, or more Subordinate, and 
one, or more relations and also combinations of these 
groups. 

Lit. Def. The word, group, means many grown together ; as, 
clusters. 

Anal. Group, p, many, several ; grou=grow, growing or cre- 
ated together. 

1. Tops of mountains ; I* i. Mountain's tops ; i* I. Mountain 
tops ; i* I. 

2. Very lofty tops of high mountains ; i* i* 1* i* i. 

Elements of Groups. 

3. The Immediate Elements of Groups are Ideas and 
element Groups. 

3. Mary's beautiful boquet of flowers ; i* i* I* i. 
The immediate elements of this group are ideas. 

4. An Element Group is a group used as a part or 
element of a group. 

4. The largest-sized apples of this very large orchard. 

This group contains the element group, the largest-sized apples, 
which contains the principal group, the apples, and the group, larg- 
est-sized, subordinate to the principal idea, apples ; and the subord- 
inate group, this very large orchard, related by of to the prin. I. 
apples, which also contains the group, very large, subordinate to 
apples. 

5. The Elements of Groups are divided into Principal, 
Subordinate, and Relations. 



CLASSIFICATION ' OF GROUPS. 21 

0. The Principal elements of Groups are Principal 
ideas, and Principal element groups. The Subordinate 
elements are Subordinate ideas and Subordinate Groups. 

5. The colored plumage. 

In this group, the principal element is the principal idea, 
plumage. 

6. The very beautifully colored plumage of the tropical birds. 
The principal elements are the Prin. I., plumage ; the Prin. El. 

Gr., the plumage. The subordinate elements are subordinate ideas 
and subordinate element groups. 

The subordinate elements in ex., 5, are the subord. i., the ; the 
subord. gr., very beautifully colored, with its subordinate gr., very 
beautifully ; etc. 

7. The Relations between the elements of groups are 
those of a subordinate to elements of a higher order. 

Classifications of Groups. 

8. Groups are classified according to their formation, 
and according to their relations. 

9. According to their formation, Groups are Simple 
and Compound. 

1®. A Simple Group is a group vihose immediate ele- 
ments are a Principal idea, and one or more Subordinate 
ideas related to the principal. 

Lit. Def. The word, simple, means without fold. 

Anal. Simple, e, something ; pi, leaf, fold, ply ; sim=sine, with- 
out. See single. 

1. The flavor of apples ; i* I* i. The apples' flavor ; i* i* I. The 
apple flavor ; i* i* I. 

Translations. Small i, the ; *, (not expressed) ; I, flavor ; *, of ; 
i, apples. Small i, the ; *, (not expressed) ; i, apple ; * 's ; 1, fla- 
vor. Small i, the ; *, (not ex.) ; i, apple ; *, (not ex.) ; 1, flavor. 

2. Horse cart. Cart horse. 

1 1 . A Compound Group is a group having one or 
more subordinate groups among its elements. 

Lit. Def. The word, co?npound, means something weighed to- 
gether. 

Anal. Compound, d, that which [is] ; poun=pond, weighed ; 
com=con, together. 

1. Very large books, i* t* I. A song of the good old times. 
Very large books is a Compound group; because, its immediate 



22 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. 

elements are its principal idea, books, and its sub. group, very 



IS. Second Classification. According to their re- 
lations, Groups are of two kinds ; Dependent and Inde- 
pendent. 

13. A Dependent Group is a subordinate group. 
Lit. Def. The word, dependent, means hanging from. 

Anal. Dependent, ent, state of, condition of ; d=t, that which; 
pen, hangs ; de, from. 

Thus, in the groups, very deep l$iie colors, stairway of the tower, 
the subordinate groups, very deep, the tower, are Dependent 
Groups. 

14. An Independent Group is ; first, any entire group, 
and second, a simple element group having in it the prin- 
cipal idea of the entire group. 

Lit. Def. The word, independent, means not hanging from 
[another]. 

Anal. Dependent, ; in, not. 

In the Compound group, The best lessons of true knowledge, 
Uncle Joseph's very good son, the principal groups, the best lessons, 
very good son, are Independent groups. 

Thoughts. 
Outline. The Science of Thoughts, includes, first, the 
Definitions; second, the Elements / third, the Classifica- 
tions of Thoughts. 

1 . The term, Thought, is the name given to two, or to 
three Primary Ideals, with, or without subordinates, and 
to combinations of these forming units. 

Lit. Def. The word, thought, means that which creates ; or* 
has been created. 

Anal. Thought. (ou)ght, that which, one who ; th. creates, ar- 
ranges, guides ; or [has been] created. 

1. Men live ; I 1 * I 2 . Some men live in houses of stone ; i* I 1 * 
I 2 * i* i. 

The Ideal, men live, is a Simple Thought ; because, it has two 
Primary ideas ; the actor, men, and the action, live, and a co-ordinate 
relation between them. It has no subordinate ideas. 

2. Thinkers think thoughts ; I 1 * I 2 * P. Some thinkers always 
think profitable thoughts ; i* I 1 * i* P* i* P. 

The idea, some, is subord. to the First Primary idea, men ; the 



ELEMENTS OF THOUGHTS. 23 

idea, houses, is subord. to live, its relation is in ; the idea, stone, is 
subord. to houses, its relation is of. 

3. Men live and thinkers think thoughts ; I 1 * I 2 + I'* I 2 * P. 
Ex. 3 is a combination of thoughts without subordinate ideas. 

4. Some men live in houses of stone, and some thinkers always 
think profitable thoughts. 

Ex. 4 is a combination of thoughts having subordinate ideas. 



Elements of Thoughts. 

2. The Immediate Elements of Thoughts are Element 
Ideas, Element Groups and Element Thoughts, or 
thoughts used as parts of an entire thought. 

3. The Elements of thoughts are divided into First 
Primary, Second Primary, Third Primary, and Subor- 
dinate Elements, Relations and Ideas of Connection or 
Connections. 

4. The First Primary Ifyement of a Thought is an 
Ideal (Idea, Group, Element Thought), which causes ■ 
some action or maintains some state of existence. 

1. F. P. Ideas. Do winds blow ? ; i* I 1 * I 2 . Spirits inhabit 
bodies ; I 1 * 1** I 3 . Bodies are inhabited by spirits. 

In Ex. 1. The First Primary Elements are the ideas, winds, 
spirits ; because, they maintain or cause the actions or states of 
existence, blow, inhabit. 

2. F. P. Groups. The home of our childhood is here. 

In ex. 2. The First Primary Element is a Group, the home of 
our childhood, because, it is the maintainer of the existence, is. 

I 1 

p# j 

The home of our childhood 

3. The Rocky Mountains obstructed our view. Our view was 
obstructed by the Rocky Mountains. 

— •* I 2 * i I s 

The Rocky Mountains * > 

4. F. P. 'Element Thought. Thy country needs thee rang in 
every man's ears. 

In Ex. 4. the First Primary ideal is the Element Thought, thy 
country needs thee ; because, it is a thought used as the maintainer 
of the action or existence, rang. 
I 1 

Thy country needs thee 

5. " 1 wAll do my duty " has won success. Success has been won 
by " 1 will do my duty?' 

In ex. 5. The First Primary ideal is the Element Thought, 



24 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. 

" 1 Will do my duty " ; because, it is a thought used as the actor or 
cause of the action, has won. The Element idea, 1> is the First 
Primary idea of the Element Thought, 1 will do my duty, 

* p* p 

I will do my duty. 
5. The Second Primary Element of a thought is an 

Idea or Group, which is the action or state of existence 

caused or maintained by the First Primary. 

1. S. P. Idea. Winds Now. Spirits inhabit bodies. 

In ex. 1. the Second Primary elements are the ideas, blow, in- 
habit ; because they are the actions caused by the first primaries, 
wind, spirits. 

2. 8. P. Groups. The Spring *will be here. Will the Spring be 
here? 

In ex. 2. The Second Primary ideal, is the element group, 
will be, the action or state of existence caused or maintained by the 
first primary, Spring. 



F*- 



will be 
3. Bid the girls sing the songs ? The girls did sing the songs. 
Did sing is a Second Primary group ; because, etc. 

G. The Third Primary Element of a thought is an 

Ideal (Idea, Group, Element Thought), which is the re* 

ceiver of the action or the Second Primary. 

1. T. P. Idea. The spirit inhabits the body. The body is in- 
habited by the spirit. 

In ex., 1, the Third Primary element is the idea, body ; be- 
cause, it is the receiver of the action, inhabit. 

2. T. P. Group. We saw the " Lily of the Valley: 9 
In ex., 2, the Third Primary element is the group, Lily of the 

because, it is the receiver of the action, saw. 

3. T. P. Element Thought. I wish them to eat bread. I wish 
bread to be eaten by them. Bread to be eaten by them is wished by 
me. 

In ex., 3, the Third Primary ideal is the element thought, them 
to eat bread, bread to be eaten by them ; because, it is the receiver 
of the action, wish. The idea, bread, is the receiver of the action, 
eat. 

7 V The Subordinate Elements of thoughts are Ideas, 
Groups and Element Thoughts, which are related to ele- 
ments of a higher order. 

1. Subord. Ideas. A sincere friend will always show his friend- 
ship in actions. 

In ex., 1, the Subordinate elements are the ideas, a sincere, sub. 



ELEMENTS OF THOUGHTS. 25 

ordinate to the actor, friend ; always, actions, subordinate to the 
action, will show ; his, subordinate to the recefrrer, friendship, 

2. Subord. Groups. The almond-shaped fort stands at the foot 
of the cloud-capped mountains. 

In ex., 2, the Subord. Group elements are almond-shaped, sub- 
ord. to the first primary, fort ; the foot of the cloud-capped moun- 
tains, subord. to the second primary, stands ; the cloud-capped 
mountains, a group, subord. to foot; cloud capped, subord. to moun- 
tains. The group, almond-shaped, as an element group is insepar- 
able, so also is cloud-capped, but not used as element groups, they 
are separable. 

3. Subord. Thoughts. The horse will run &w&y 'if you drop the 
halter. If you drop the halter the horse will run away. 

4. Subord. El. T. He fled from men needing his assistance. 
The element thought, men needing his assistance is subordinate 

to the action, fled. 

V • 

Ii* p* i 

men needing his assistance 

5. Subord. Thought. Some trees which [trees] shed their leaves 
are evergreen. 

The Element Thought, which [trees] shed their leaves, is subord. 
to the first primary, trees. 

6. S. T. .Short speech suffices deep thought to show, when you 
with icisdom say, yes, or no. 

The El. Thought, tohen you tcith idisdom say, yes or no, is sub- 
ord. to the second primary, suffices. 

7. We shall know Him, whom to know aright is life eternal. 
The El. Thought, whom to know aright, etc., is subord. to the 

third primary, Him. 

8. " He did his duty " (First P.) forms (S. P.) a noble epitaph 
(T. P.). 

9. Wonders (Third P.) have been done (S. P.) by " I will try it" 
(F. P.). 

10. The World (F. P.) needs (S. P.) that every man should do his 
duty (T. P.). 

8. Relations in thought, exist between co-ordinate 
elements, and, also, between subordinate and higher ele- 
ments. • 

1. Relations. The people of the city allowed the poor [people] 
to take food to their homes from the public storehouses. 

Co-ordinate relations exist between the primary ideals, people, 
allowed, the poor people, etc. ; also between the co-ordinate ideas, 
people, take, food. 

2. I see that they run. I see them run. 

In ex., 2, the co-ordinate simple thoughts, 1 see that they run or 
them run, are joined by using the thought, that they run, or them 
run, as the third primary idea of the thought whose first or second 
parts are I see. 2 



26 INTRODUCTORY. [dlAP. I. 

3. Children obey your parents in the Lord, is a divine precept. 
In ex., 3, children obey your parents in the Lord, is a simple 

thought, used, as the first primary idea in the thought having for 
its second primary, is, In this thought, the first part exists in two 
forms ; as a simple thought, children obey your parents in the 
Lord ; and, as a group of ideas, a divine precept ; while the sec- 
ond part is the second primary, is. 

These elements have co-ordinate relations. 

In ex., 1, Subordinate relations exist between the subordinate 
group, the, City, and the actor, people ; also, between the subordin- 
ates, the. poor, and the actor, people ; also, between the subordinate 
groups, their liomes, the public storehouses, and the action or second 
primary, take. 

4. We wept when we remembered Zion. 

In ex., 4, the subordinate thought, when we remembered Zion, is 
used as a secondary idea, belonging to the second primary, wept, to 
which it has subordinate relations. 

H. An Idea of Connection is an idea suggested or 
discovered by comparing two thoughts as to resemblance^ 
contrast, or cause and effect. 

Examples. 
F S T + F S T 

1. Men dig the earth and men sow grain. 

Ex., 1, is a thought formed of the co-ordinate simple thoughts, 
men dig the earth, men sow * grain, between which an idea of con- 
nection is caused by finding the same first primary idea, men, in 
both. 

It may be represented by F S T + F S T. 

2. These boys stand and these boys walk and these boys run. 
FS + FS + FS. 

3. Ice is melted by heat and water is evaporated by heat. 3 2 
1 + 321. 

4. The moon moves round the earth and the earth moves round 
the sun. 

In ex., 4, the same second primary idea, moves, is found in both 
element thoughts ; hence, the idea of connection arises from the 
resemblance of these two thoughts. 

5. Men build temples and time destroys them. 

The idea of connection, in ex., 5, arises from the resemblance 
caused by having the same third primary idea. X Y Z + X Y Z. 

6. The horse was feeding in the field and the man was passing 
by the field. 

The resemblance between these simple thoughts is in the sub- 
ordinate ideas, the field ; hence, the idea of connection between 
them. 

Note 1. Between the co-ordinate simple thoughts, the horse 
was feeding in the field, the man was passing by the house, no idea 
of connection arises, because they have points neither of resem* 



CLASSIFICATION OF THOUGHTS. 27 

blance nor of contrast; hence, they remain two unconnected 
thoughts. 

7. Men build temples, but time destroys them. 

In ex., 7, the idea of connection arises from the contrast between 
the second primary ideas, build, destroys ; while, in ex., 5, it arose 
from their resemblance through the third primary idea. 

8. Sorrow comes at night but joy comes in the morning. Sor- 
row comes at night and joy comes in the morning. 

If we compare the thoughts, sorrow comes at night, joy comes 
in the morning, as to their first primary ideas, sorrow, joy ; or, as 
to their secondary ideas, at night, in the morning, the idea of con- 
nection arises from their contrast, and we have ; — Sorrow comes at 
night but joy comes in the morning. If we compare them as to 
the second primary idea, comes, the idea of connection arises from 
their resemblance, and we have ; — Sorrow comes at night and joy 
comes in the morning. 

9. It rained yesterday, therefore the plants are growing to-day. 
The plants are growing to- da v because it rained yesterday. 12 + 
12. 

Note 2. The difference between a relation and a connection 
may be stated thus ; a Relation is an idea discovered by compar- 
ing two ideals (ideas, groups, thoughts) used as element ideas ; a 
Connection is an idea suggested by comparing two element 
thoughts. 

Classification of Thoughts. 

1®. Thoughts are classified according to their forma- 
tion and, according to their relations. 

1 1. According to formation, Thoughts are Simple and 
Compound. 

12. A Simple Thought is a thought tohose immediate 
elements are primary ideas or primary groups of ideas 
having co-ordinate relations. It may have subordinate 
ideas also. 

1. Men live ; I 1 * I 2 . Some men live in houses of stone ; i* I 1 * 
I 2 * i* i. 

The Ideal, men live, is a Simple Thought ; because, it has two 
Primary ideas ; the actor, men, and the action, live, and a co-ordinate 
relation between them. It has no subordinate ideas. 

The ide&,some, is subord. to the First Primary idea, men; the 
idea, houses, is subord. to live, its relation is in ; the idea, stone, is 
subord. to houses, its relation is of. 

2. Thinkers think thoughts ; I 1 * I 2 * I 3 . Some thinkers always 
think profitable thoughts ; i* I 1 * i* I 2 * i* I 3 . 



28 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP I. 

IS, Each Primary Ideal with, or without subordinates, 
is called a Part of a Thought, hence we have the First 
Part, the Second Part and the Third Part of a thought. 

14. Simple Thoughts are divided into two kinds; 
Simple Thoughts of Two Parts, and Simple Thoughts of 
Three Parts. 

First Part. Sec. Part. Third P. 

1. Columbus discovered America. 

In ex., 1, we have a Simple thought of three parts ; first part, 
Columbus ; second part, discovered ; third part, America ; each 
part consisting of a primary idea, only. 
Third P. Second Part. First Part. 

2. America was discovered by Columbus. 
First P. 2d P. First. Second. 

3. Birds fly. Some birds fly very swiftly. . 

Some birds fly very swiftly is a simple thought of two parts. F. 
P., some birds ; S. I*., fly very swiftly; each part consisting of a 
primary idea and its subord. 

4. The very best book of all books (First P.) imparts to man 
(Second P.) the most truly blessed consolations "(Third P.). 

5. The man's fine, black horse easily drew his elegant carriage 
up the slope of the hill. 

1. A. Compound Thought is a thought having one 3 or 
more element thoughts among its immediate elements. 

2. Compound thoughts are classified ; first, according 
to the modes of joining tKeir element thoughts ; second, 
according to their immediate element thoughts. 

3. According to the modes of joining their elements, 
Compound Thoughts are divided into Connected [Com- 
pound] Thoughts, and Complex or Mixed [Compound] 
Thoughts. 

Note 1. For convenience, Connected Compound thoughts may 
be called Connected thoughts; Complex or Mixed Compound 
thoughts, Complex or Mixed thoughts, because all Connected and 
Complex thoughts are Compound. 

4L A Connected Thought is one whose immediate ele* 
ments are joined by an idea of connection. 



COMPLEX THOUGHTS. 29 



1. He rejoiced at my prosperity, and he deplored my adversity, 
therefore will 1 have confidence in him until other charges against 
him have been proved. 

For other examples of connected thoughts see Connections. 

5. A Complex or Mixed Thought is a thought having 
an immediate element thought used as an idea only. 

1. We suppose them to he the men. 

Ex., 1, is a complex or mixed thought, because the immediate el- 
ement thought, them to be the men, is used as the receiver of the sec- 
ond primary idea, supposed, to which it has a co-ordinate relation. 

2. Mind your business is a good motto. 

Ex., 2, is a complex thought because it has the immediate ele- 
ment thought, mind your business, used as the first primary idea, 
having a co-ordinate relation to the second primary, is. 

3. The bird, that [bird] sings so sweetly, built the nest, which 
[nest] you can see, on that tree, which [tree] stands there. 

Ex., 8, is a complex thought ; because, it has three immediate 
element thoughts, the first of which, that [bird] sings so sweetly, 
is used as an idea having a subordinate relation to the actor, bird ; 
etc. 

4. I will come if 1 can find the time. 

6. According to their immediate elements, Compound 
Thoughts are of the First Degree, of the Second Degree, 
of the Third Degree, etc. 

Lit. Def. The word, degree, means according to a step. 

Anal. Degree, e, something; gre=gres, a step ; de, according to. 

7. A Compound Thought of the First Degree is a 
Compound 'Thought having one, or more, simple immedi- 
ate element thoughts. 

Examples. 

1. Do you wish this class to come now ? 

Ex., 1, is a Com. thought of the First Degree; because, it has 
the simple el. t., this class to come now, among its immediate ele- 
ments. 

2. You stood and she sat. You stood while she was sitting. 
Ex., 2, is a compound thought of the First Degree ; because, its 

immediate elements, you stood, she sat, are simple element 
thoughts. 

8. A Compound Thought of the Second Degree, is a 
Compound Thought, having one, or more Primary com. 
t. among its immediate elements. 



30 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I 

1. " Boast not thyself of to-morrow, for thou knowest not what 
a day may bring forth." 

Ex., 1, is a compound thought of the Second Degree ; because, 
it has the com. t. of the First degree, thou knowest not what a day 
may bring forth, as an immediate element. 

2. " Whoso loveth instruction, loveth knowledge ; but he, that 
hateth reproof, is brutish." 

Ex., 2, has two immediate element thoughts of the First de- 
gree. They are joined by the connection, but. 

9, A Compound Thought of the Third Degree is 

one having one, or more secondary compounds among its 

immediate elements, 

1. " There is [one person] that maketh himself rich, yet hath 
nothing ; and, there is [one person] that maketh himself poor, yet 
hath great riches. 

Ex. 1, is a compound thought of the Third degree ; because, it 
has two immediate element thoughts of the Second degree. They 
are joined by the connection, and. 

Second Classification of Thoughts. 

1. According to their relations, Thoughts, are Depend- 
ent, and Independent. 

2. A Dependent Thought is an element thought used 
as a primary or a subordinate idea in the formation of 
a thought. 

1. We saw them [to] catch the horse. 

Them catch the horse, is a dependent thought, because it is an 
element thought used as the receiver or third primary idea in the 
Complex thought, we saw them catch the horse. It is co-ordinate 
with the first and second primaries, we saw. 

2. We wept when we remembered Zion. 

In ex., 2, when we remembered Zion, is a dependent thought ; be- 
cause, it is used as a subordinate or secondary idea in the Complex 
thought, We icept when ice remembered Zion. 

3. Dependent thoughts are of two kinds ; Primary 
and Subordinate or Secondary. 

4t. A Primary Dependent thought is a thought used as 
a first, or as a third primary idea. 

3. " 1 will try it " has done wonders. 

"i will try it" is an element thought used as the first primary 
idea or actor of a complex thought ; hence, it is a Primary Depend 
ent thought. It is co-ordinate to the action, has done t and to its 
receiver, ioonders. 



INDEPENDENT THOUGHTS. 31 

4. We knew these sheep to be yours by their ear-marks. We 
knew that these sheep were yours by their ear-marks. 

These sheep to be yours and that these sheep were yours, are used as 
third primary ideas in the formation of the thoughts to which they 
belong ; hence, they are Primary Dependent thoughts. 

Note I. Primary Dependent thoughts can be used in place of Actora 
and of Receivers. They can not be used in place of Actions or Second 
primaries. 

5% A Subordinate Dependent thought is a thought used as 
a Subordinate or Secondary idea. 

5. A man, who holds an office, should remember that he does 
mt own the office. 

Who holds an office is used as a subordinate idea in the first part of 
a thought ; hence, it is a Subordinate or Secondary Dependent thought. 

6. You went to the place in which he resides. 

7. Did you listen when the teacher was instructing you t 

8. Did the gentleman sit while the ladies were standing f 

9. Can you see the tree on which this fruit grew f 

10. Dr. Kane had hopes of reaching the North Pole. 

Independent Thoughts. 

6. An Independent Thought is one not used as an idea in 
€te formation of another thought. 

Examples. 

1. Roses bloom in the summer time. 

This is an independent thought because it is not used as an idea in the 
formation of another thought. 

Note I. A simple thought, used alone, can not be Dependent, for, 
according to the definition, a Dependent must always be an element of a 
mixed compound thought; and, for the same reason, a compound 
thought, used alone, can not be Dependent. 

2. Some men build houses and other men live in them. 

In ex., 2, some men build houses, is independent, because it is not used 
as an idea in the formation of another thought ; for the same reason, 
other men live in them, is independent and, for the same reason also, the 
compound thought is independent. 



32 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. 1 

. IV. The Classification of Language. 
1 , Language, according to its essentials or that which it 
expresses, is divided into Mood, Language or Language of 
Fetling, and Thought or Sentential Language. 

Note I. Many classify Language according to its supposed origin, 
into Natural, and Artificial, designating by the term, Natural Lan- 
auage, that which we call Mood Language, and by the term, Arti- 
ficial, that which we call Thought Language. We object to this 
classification because all Language is of Divine origin, and hence 
sdike, natural. 

Mood Language. 
2 # Mood Language or Language of Feeling is that which 
is used to express moods or feelings, passions or emotions. 

3. Mood Language has three kinds of elements ; Bodily, 
Vocal or Phonic, and Syntax Elements of Mood Language. 

4. The Bodily Elements of mood language are those atti- 
tudes or positions, and those motions of the body, and those 
appearances of the face, which express moods or feelings. 

5. The Vocal or Phonic Elements of mood language are 
those tones, produced by the organs of voice and of speech, 
which express moods or feelings. 

6. The Vocal or Phonic Elements of mood language 
are considered in three ways; first, as to Key or Pitch; 
second, as to Quantity and third, as to Force or Stress. 

7 e The Key or Pitch of a Tone is the name for the variar 
tions of tones, as the lowest, the highest, and tones intermediate 
to these. 

Note I. For the purpose of showing the Key or Pitch, musicians 
use horizontal lines and their spaces, which are called degrees. 
Every student should become familiar with them, both scientifically 
and practically. They are necessary for singing not only, but quite 
as much for speaking and reading. 

Direction. Read the following Table, beginning with the lowest 
key ; say, one, key of awe, in the lowest tone in which you can 
speak it audibly ; then, two, key of sublimity, a little above the key 



KEY, QUANTITY, STRESS. 33 

of awe, and so on, through the Table. The key of the "head is called 
the Falsetto key by musicians. It is the highest tone in which you 
can speak or yell words distinctly. The student should practice 
this table in the order from 1 to 10, and, from 10 to 1, until familiar 
with it. The middle keys should be used in the ordinary recita- 
tions of the school-room ; hence, they are often called the Student's 
Keys; finally, read each example in several or in all the keys; 
and, then, tell which key best expresses its mood or feeling. 

A Table 1 of the Keys with Examples. 

1. Key of Awe. Surely this is an awful place ! 

2. Key of Sublimity. God said, let light be and light was. 

3. Key of Essays. The literary character of Greece is well known, 

4. Key of History. God created the heavens and the earth. 

5. Key of Common Conversation. How do you do ? 3 and 2 are 5 

6. Key of Earnest Conversation. Very well, I thank you! 

7. Key of Debate. Mr.P resident ! They have not hit the point. 

8. Key of Ordinary Dispute. You did it ; you know you did. 

9. Key of Angry Dispute. No, I didn't ; and you know I didn't. 
10. Key of the Head, highest key. Whoa ! back, I tell yon 1 

Note II. Changing or bending a tone from one key to another is 
called the Inflection or Cadence of a tone; hence, we have Upward 
and Downward Inflections. 

8. The Quantity of a Tone is the time taken in uttering 
it ; it may be long, short or intermediate. 

Note III. Musicians use characters called Notes to show the 
quantities of sounds. 

9. The Foece or Stress of a Tone is tlie power used in 
uttering it ; it may be strong or loud, weak or soft, or in- , 
termediate. „ 

Find the right key, quantity and force for each of the following ; — 

1. I think it a serious and a solemn subject. 

2. I think it a matter of no very great importance. 
J. Ha ! ha ! I think it a pretty good joke. 

* This table was shown to me by Dr. N. T. True of Bethel, Maine. 

2* 



34 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. 

1 6. The Syntax elements of Mood Language are those 
forms, modes, or positions, by v:hich an expression shows 
the intentions or moods of the narrator in regard to the 
thoughts which he narrates. It also includes the Empha- 
sis of an expression. 

Note 1. Some one said " Feeling is the parent of thinking," 
he might add, Feeling and thinking are the parents of language. 
If this be the true relationship of these elements, the features of 
an expression must be similar to those of the moods and ideals 
which gave birth to the expression. 

17. Expressions, according to their essentials (moods, 
ideals) are divided into the Exclamative, Imperative, In- 
terrogative, Responsive, Declarative or Historic and Con- 
ditional. 

18. An Exclamative is an expression showing an ex- 
cited mood only, or an excited mood and an ideal taken 
together. 

Lit. Def. The word, exclamative, means like that which shouts, 
calls out. 

Anal. Exclamative. ative, ; clam, calls, shouts ; ex, out. 

1. (Mood only.) Ah ! Eh ! Oh ! Ugh ! Umph ! Humph ! O 
Humph ! 

2. (Moods and Ideals.) Ah me ! O Union, strong and great I 
O Humph, what nonsense ! 

3. (Moods and Thoughts.) Oh, that mine enemy had done this ! 
What a treasure thou art ! 

19. An Imperative is an expression used in command- 
ing, asking, urging, etc. 

Lit. Def. The word, imperative, means like that which orders. 
Anal. Imperative, ative, ; per, over, above ; im=in. 

1. Commanding. Throw down your arms and disperse. 

2. Entreating. Give us this day our daily bread. 

3. Permitting. Enter, my lords, and take your rest. 

4. Apologizing. Excuse me, sir. 

5. Exhorting. Awake, and let your songs resound. 

30. An Interrogative is an expression used when the 
narrator wishes to receive or to learn from, the narratee, or 
wishes to astonish the narralee. 



SYNTAX ELEMENTS. 



35 



Lit. Def. The word, interrogative, means the office of that 
which questions. 

Anal. l Interrogative, ative, ; rog, questions, asks ; 

inter, between, back and forth. 

1. Come ye in peace ? 

2. Do ye come in peace ? 

3. Are ye coming in peace ? 

4. Who is here ? Which is here ? What is here ? 

21. A Responsive or Answer, is an expression used 
by the narratee, in replying to the question of the narrator. 

Lit. Def. The word, responsive, means like that which gives 
lack. 

Anal. Responsive, sive, ; spon, puts, stands ; re, back. 

1. Are you studying? Responsive or Ans. We are studying. 
We do study. We study. We are. Yes. 

22. A Declarative or Historic is an expression used 
by the narrator in giving an account or history of a mat- 
ter, or a statement of an occurrence, and indicates that the 
narrator is in his ordinary mood. 

Lit. Def. The word, declarative, means like that which speaks 
out. 

Anal. Declarative. (a)tive, ; clar = clam, speaks, shouts ; 

de, out, concerning. 

Lit. Def. 'The word, historic, means "belonging to that which is 
fixed, sure, fast. 

Anal. Historic, oric, belonging to the office of ; t, that which ; 
his, stands, keeps. See history. 

1. I asked him to go with me, and he went. 

2. Lives of great men all remind us, we can make our lives 
sublime. 

3. The United States were declared independent of Great Brit- 
ain, July 4th, 1776. 

23. A Conditional is an expression of a subordinate 
ideal, vshich limits or lessens the meaning of its principal. 

Lit. Def. The word, conditional, means that which lias been 
put with another. 

Anal. Conditional, al, belonging to, having the property of ; 
ion, being, state; (i)t, that which; d, placed, put; con, with 
[another]. 

1. The trip will be pleasant, if the wind do not blow. 

2. The ship being leaky, was abandoned by the crew. 

3. If you come, when 1 am away from home, leave directions 
by which I may find you. 

24. The Emphasis of an expression is derived from 
the importance or peculiar signification of an expression. 



36 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. 

or of some part of it. In reading, Emphasis is shown by 
the stress or force of the tones used. 

1. Violent Moods. Banished from Rome! What a wretch thou 
art ! They come ! they come ! the Greek ! the Greek ! 

2. Ordinary Moods. Cyphering is the art of Arithmetic. 

3. Emphatic Elements. The harpies of the shore shall pluck the 
eagle of the sea ! 

4. It can't be help'd ; though, if we're taken young, 
We gain some freedom of the lips and tongue ; 
But school and college often try in vain 

To break the padlock of our boy hood's, chain ; 
One stubborn word will prove this axiom true — 
No late-caught rustic can enunciate mew. 

5. A few brief stanzas may be well employ'd 
To speak of errors we can all avoid. 
Learning condemns beyond the reach of hope 
The careless churl that speaks of soap for soap ; 
Her edict exiles from her fair abode 

The clownish voice that utters road for road; 
Less stern to him who calls his coat a coat, 
And steers his boat believing it a boat. 
She pardon'd one, our classic city's boast, 
Who said, at Cambridge, most instead of most ; 
But knit her brows, and stamp'd her angry foot, 
To hear a teacher call a root 1 a root. 2 

6. Once more ; speak clearly, if you speak at all ; 
Carve every word before you let it fall ; 
Don't, like a lecturer or dramatic star, 

Try over hard to roll the British R ; 

Do put your accents in the proper spot ; 

Don't— let me beg you— don't say "How?" for "What?" 

And when you stick on conversation's burs, 

Don't strew the pathway with those dreadful urs. 

O. W. Holmes. 

l oo — ui in fruit; 2 mispronounced rut. 



USES OF LANGUAGE. 37 

Thought or Sentential Lmiguage. 

1. Thought or Sentential Language is the language used 
in thinking ; and, also, in the communication cf thoughts. 

2. Thought Language, according to the mode of its ex 
pression, is divided into three kinds ; Spoken or Phonic ; 
Written or Graphic and Sign Language. 

P? 3, Spoken or Phonic Language is that in which sounds 
are used as the names or expy^essions of ideals and, also, as the 
ultimate elements with which the language is formed. 

4. Written or Graphic Language is that in which pic* 
tures, maps, charts, diagrams and other delineations are used 
as the names or expressions of ideals and, also, as the letters 
or ultimate elements of language. (Ch. IV. Orthography.) 

5. Sign Language is that in which objects, motions, and 
sounds have certain arbitrary meanings. 

As, guide-boards, monuments, the language of mutes, telegraphic 
signals, bells, etc., etc., etc. 

6. TJie Elements of Thought language are WORDS, 
PHKASES, and SENTENCES. 

V. The Logical, Rhetorical and Grammatical Uses of 
Language. 

1. Language is used in three ways, of which ; — 

The First is called the Logic of Language. This Use 
belongs to the Narratee, and is described in Chapter EL 

The Second is called the Rhetoric of Language, or Rheto- 
ric. This Use belongs to the Narrator. Rhetoric is divided 
into Constructive Rhetoric, which is described in Chapter 
DX, and Ornamental Rhetoric, described in Chapter V. 

The Third is called the Grammar of Language, or Gram- 
mar. This Use belongs to both the Narrator and the Nar- 
ratee, and is described in Chapter IV. 



38 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. 

The Logical, Rhetorical and Grammatical Uses of Language, 
may be compared to the uses of a window ; — One of the first or es- 
sential uses of a window is as a mean through which objects may be 
seen. For this purpose the attention is directed mainly, or entirely, 
to the object itself, without being conscious of the medium (the 
window,) through which the object is seen. This illustrates the 
Logical Use of language. That is, we may be so intent in behold- 
ing the object, as not to be conscious of the window ; in like man- 
ner, we may be so intent upon the meaning of an expression, as 
not to be conscious of the expression (word, phrase, sentence) 
itself. 

Second. We may observe what parts of the object are seen 
through the different parts of the window; as, if the object be a 
landscape, what parts of it may be seen through each sash ; through 
each pane, or part of a pane. In this use, the window and the land- 
scape receive equal attention in order to find relations between them. 
This illustrates the Bhetorical Use of language. That is, we give 
equal attention to the landscape, and to the window. In like man- 
ner, we may give equal attention to the meaning and to its expres- 
sion. 

Third. We may so direct our attention to the window, to its 
parts and to their relations, as to be nearly, or quite unconscious 
of the landscape, which might be seen through it. Thus, we may 
so direct our attention to the expression, to its parts, and the rela- 
tions of these, as to be nearly, or quite unconscious of the mean- 
ing. This illustrates the Grammatical Use of language. That is 
we may attend mainly, or entirely to the window, without being 
conscious of the landscape, so we may attend mainly, or entirely 
to the expression without being conscious of its meaning. 

First Remark. In its Logical Use, language is the medium 
only. This is the purpose for which it was created and for which 
it exists. This is its natural use, or its use in the economy of na- 
ture ; hence, the greatest care must be exercised that the language 
be studied as the mean or medium of its meaning. 

Second Remark. In its Grammatical Use, the language itself 
becomes the object or end of study. This is an unnatural or arti- 
ficial use of it, to which the student must not be introduced until 
he has gained a large power in its logical or natural use. That is 
has a large vocabulary of expressions of which he is the master 
and with whose meanings he is thoroughly familiar. Hence, we 
kave the following ; — 

Rule. Language must be taught as the mean or me- 
dium of expressing our moods and ideals. 

N.B. — The chief objection to the present mode of teaching the 
English Language is, that little, or no attention is given to the 
difference between the meaning or ideal, and its name or expression. 
These differences should be carefully taught to students, and be 
made very familiar by them. This may be done by lessons some- 
what like that given on the eighth page. 



CHAPTER II.— The Logic of Language* 



1 . Outline. The Science of the Logic of Language 

includes ; 

I. The Definitions ; 
II. The Formulas of Expressions ; 
III. Modes of finding the Essentials of Expressions. 



I. The Definition. 

2. The Logic of Language is the name given to that part of 
the science, which shoivs how the narratee shall find feelings 
and thoughts in expressions made by narrators. 

II. The Formulas. 

3. A Formula is a little form or model, used to represent 
the meaning of an expression and, sometimes, to represent the 
expression itself 

Note I. The Formulas are used in Language, as in the Mathe- 
matics ; because, a Formula is the simplest and clearest method of 
representing values and their relations and, because the use of 
them is a great saving of time and labor both in written and in 
oral analyses. Mathematicians always approve and enjoy them ; 
while, Cipherers often object to them. 

4. The Formulas are made by using the abbreviations, 
F, 1, or X, to represent the First Part ; S, 2, or Y, to re- 
present the Second Part, and T, 3, or Z^ to represent the 
Third Part of the thought. A part of a thought, which ia 
not expressed, is represented by a small letter. The letter, 
r, or the Star or Asterisk [*] is used to represent an Idea of 
Relation. Plus [ + ] represents the Idea of Connection. 

5. The Formula of a simple thought of two parts con- 
tains two signs ; while, the Formula of a simple thought of 
three parts contains three signs of parts. Ideas of Relation 
may be expressed, or be understood. These are called 
Simple Formulas. 

(39) 



40 THE LOGIC OF LANGUAGE. (:CH A7\ U. 

Thus, F S, 1 2, or X Y is a Simple formula of a thought of two 
parts; while, F S TorT'S F, 1 2 3 or 3*2 1, X Y Z or Z Y X, is a 
Simple formula of a thought of three parts. 

6. The Formula of a connected thought contains two or 
more simple formulas whose Idea of Connection is express 
ed by plus. These are called Connected Formulas. 

Thus, F S + F S T, T S.F + F S -f F S T, are Connected formulas. 

*3f. The Formula of a complex or mixed thought has the 
sign of a part of a thought above a line and the formula of a 
thought below it. These are called Complex Formulas. 

F T 

Thus, =-5 S, F S _ _ _ etc, are Complex or Mixed formulas. 

HE. The Narratee's Mode of finding the Essentials. 

8. The Narratee's Logical use of thought language is 
analytic, because he must use the narrator's language as the 
means of finding the idea, the group of ideas, or the thought 
expressed by the narrator. 

The expression of a Single Idea. 

9. The narratee may, and he may not, have the same 
idea suggested by a word, which the narrator intended to ex- 
press by using that ivord. 

Examples. 

1. Stove. Brush. WelL Apple. 

Thus, by the term, stove, the narrator may name an idea of an 
actor; as, the stove contains the fuel ; or, he may mean the idea 
of an action ; as, the whale stove me boat ; or, he may mean a sub- 
ordinate idea ; as, the STQTE-maker put the STOVE-pipe on the stove. 
Which of these ideas is intended by the narrator cannot be learned 
by the narratee, if he receive nothing but the word, stove, from the 
narrator. If, however, the narrator use the word, stove, and, at the 
same time, by look, gesture, or by any other means, designate the 
object which he calls, stove, something beside the word itself is given 
to the narratee, whir" 1 ! enables him to determine the idea intended 
by the narrator. 

Analysis. Stove expresses a single idea, and may be an idea of an 
actor ; as, the stove there. It may be the idea of an action ; as, the 



EXPRESSION- OF GROUPS. 41 

Stone stove the giass. It may be a receiver ; as, see this stove. It may 
be a subordinate or a secondary idea; as, stove-GOol is larger than 
chestnut-coal. 

In like manner, analyze brush, well, apple, *etone, etc., etc. 

The expression of a Group of Ideas. 

1©. Generally the narratee will have the same group of 

ideas, which the narrator intended by his expression. 

Note I. The narratee will be quite sure to have the narrator's 
group of ideas, if he take, as the principal idea, the one intended by the 
narrator. 

I. In the old stove. Stove to pieces. Stove-coal. Chest- 
nut horse. 

Analysis. In the old stove is a group of ideas, of which stove is the 
principal idea ; old is a subordinate idea, having a natural relation to 
stove ; the is a subordinate idea having an incidental relation to stave ; 
and in names the idea of relation of stove to an idea not expressed. In 
like manner, analyze the expressions, stove to pieces, stove-coal, etc. If, 
m the group, chestnut horse, the narrator intend horse to be the principal, 
and chestnut its subordinate idea, and the narratee understand chestnut 
to be the principal, and horse its subordinate, he will not have the group 
of ideas which the narrator intended to express. The one being a chest- 
nut horse, and the other, a horse-chestnut. 

In like manner, analyze the groups, apple-pie, boot-black, etc. 

The expression of a Simple Thought 

I I . TJie narratee will have that simple thought which 
the narrator intended to express, when he perceives what ideas are 
primary ideas, and what ideas are subordinate or secondary to 
these primaries. 

1. The merchant's ships plough the ocean wave. 

General Analysis. In the expression, the merchant's ships plough the 
ocean wave, we find a simple independent though^ of three parts ; first 
part, the merchants ships; second part, plough; third part, the ocean 
wave. Its primary ideas are, ships, plough, wave. Its subordinate or 
secondary ideas are, tlie, merchants, the, ocean. 

Special Analysis. The is a subordinate or secondary idea of the first 
■primary, ships. 

Merchants is a subordinate or secondary idea, related to the first 
primary, ships. 

Ships is the actor or first primary idea. 

Plough is the action or second primary idea. 

Hie is a subordinate or secondary idea of the third primary, wave. 

Ocean, is a subordinate or secondary idea of the third primary, wave. 

Wave is the receiver or third primary idea. 



42 THE LOGIC OF LANGUAGE. [CHAP. H. 

Note I. la giving these analyses orally, the first primary may be 
used to mean the first primary idea ; the second primary v to mean the 
second primary idea, etc. In the special analyses, such expressions as, 
the l a secondary idea of ^the first primary idea, may be expressed as, 
the is a secondary of the actor, ships. In a written analysis the ab- 
breviations only need be used, omitting the contract periods ; thus ; — 

The merchants ships plough the ocean wave = F S Tj F = thB 
merchants ships ; S = plough ; T = the ocean wave. 

2. The cavalry galloped over the plain. 

General Analysis. TJie cavalry galloped over the plain expresses a 
simple independent thought of two parts. F Part, the cavalry ; S Part, 
galloped over the plain. Its primary ideas are cavalry, galloped. Its 
subordinate or secondary ideas are the, the, plain. Its idea of relation ia 
over. 

Special Analysis. The is a secondary of the actor, cavalry; cavalry 
is the first primary or Actor, etc. 

Written Analysis. The cavalry galloped over the plain = F S; etc. 

Note II. Written Analyses may be expressed in full, as above ; or, 
they may be expressed with the use of abbreviations, and thus become 
Formulas. In these Formulas, F, 1, or X, may represent the First Part 
of the thought ; S, 2, or Y, the Second Part of the thought ; T, 3, or 
Z, the Third Part. When a part of a thought is not expressed, it may 
be represented by a small letter. 

3. The patient astronomer studied the stars very diligently. 

General Analysis. The patient astronomer, etc., expresses a sim. 
ind. thought of three parts; F Part, the patient astronomer; S Part, 
studied very diligently ; T Part, the stars. Its primary ideas are astron- 
orner, studied, stars ; its subordinates are the, patient, very, diligently, the. 

Special Analysis. As above. 

Written Analysis or Formula. 12 3. 

4. The merchants ships galloped over the stars. (Non- 
sense.) 

General Analysis. In the expression, the merchant's ship>s, etc., we 
find the group of ideas, the merchant's ships, of which ships is the prin- 
cipal ; the, merchants, its subordinates or secondaries. The second group 
is galloped over the stars, of which galloped is the principal ; stars is the 
subordinate of galloped ; the is the subordinate of stars; and over is the 
idea of relation between stars and galloped. These groups of ideas, 
taken together, do not form a thought, because between the merchants 
ships and galloped over the stars, no idea of relation exists ; hence, the 
attempt to bring them together becomes nonsense. 

5. Dutiful children carefulty heed their parents' instructions. 

6. Princes often feel anxious cares. 

7. Am I Joseph? I am Joseph. F S. 

General Analysis. Am, I Joseph f, I am Joseph, expresses a aim. 
ind. thought of two parts; F, /, Joseph; S, am. 



EXPRESSION OF SIMPLE THOUGHTS. 43 

Special Analysis. I, Joseph, first primary idea ; am, second primary 
idea. No secondary ideas. 

8. Are acids sour? Acids are sour. 

General Analysis. Are acids sour ? expresses a sim. ind. thought of 
two parts, F S. F, acids, sour ; S, are. 

Special Analysis. Acids, first primary idea ; are, second primary 
sour, secondary of first primary, acids. 

Note III. In such thoughts as, acids are sour, some authors very 
improperly place sour with are in the Second Part ; the reason given 
being. " for these two words express what is affirmed of the subject." It 
would be well for these authors to re-study their own definitions of pre- 
dicates and of adjectives. 

Query. Is it the are that is sour, or is it the acids ? 

9. To heaven's eternal monarch, pay your loftiest hymns 
of praise, f S T. 

General Analysis. To heaven's, etc., expresses a sim. ind. thought of 
three parts ; f, not expressed, the name of the narratee being under- 
stood ; S, pay to heaven's eternal monarch ; T, your loftiest hymns of 
praise. 

Special Analysis. As above. 

10. Horses eat grass. Grass is eaten "by horses. F S T, 
T S F, 

General Analysis. Grass is eaten by horses, expresses a sim. ind. 
thought of three parts ; T, grass ; S, is eaten ; F, by horses. 
Special Analysis. As above. 

11. John put the money into his pocket. 

General Analysis. John put the money into his pocket is a sim. ind, 
thought of three parts; F, Jom; S, put into his pocket; T, the money. 

Note IY. In the above analysis, money is the third primary idea or 
the receiver, because it receives the action, put; while pocket is only a 
secondary idea in S ; it receives the thing, money, instead of the action, 
put. Hence, it is not the receiver of an action. 

12. All animals drink. F S t or X Y z. 

General Analysis. All animals drink is a thought of three parts ; F, 
all animals ; S, drink ; t, third part or receiver, understood. It is plain 
that if all animals drink, they must drink something. 

13. The fine black horse easily drew the elegant carriage 
up the hill. James writes his words neatly with a good steel 
pen. They were bound with strong cords to the large trees 
by their captors. The wind strikes the sails. The sails are 
struck by the wind. The plough heaved up the land. The 



44 THE LOGIC OF LANGUAGE. [CHAP. II. 

plough upheaved the land. The land was heaved up by the 
plough. The land was upheaved by the plough. 

The expression of a Connected Compound Thought 

13. The narratee will have the connected compound 

thought which the narrator intended to express, when he perceives 
that the expression contains a thought whose immediate elements 
are thoughts joined by an idea of connection. 

1. The sun shines brightly and the birds sing gayly. 

General Analysis. The sun shines, etc., expresses a primary con- 
nected thought, because its immediate elements are the simple thoughts, 
the sun shines brightly, the birds sing gayly, joined by an idea of con- 
nection. The first simple thought, the sun shines brightly, has two parts ; 
X, the sun; Y, shines brightly. The second simple thought, the birds 
sing gayly, has three parts ; X, the birds ; Y, sing gayly ; z, third part 
understood. If they sing, they must sing something. 

Special Analysis. The, secondary of the actor, sun; sun, actor; 
shines, action; brightly, sec. of sec. primary; and, an idea of con- 
nection; etc. 

2. He awoke, but he did not arise. 

3. The child sleeps because the mother sings. 

4. You will like the Formulas because they are simple. 

5. The harvest is gathered, [and] the summer has gone, 
and again we rejoice in the scent of the corn. 

6. Men live and men die, but God lives forever. 

General Analysis. Men live, etc., is a secondary connected thought, 
whose immediate elements aire the primary compound thought, men live 
and men die, and the simple thought, Qgd lives forever, joined by the 
idea of conn-action, but. Of these, the primary comp. has, for its im- 
mediate elements, the simple thoughts, men live, men die, joined by the 
idea of connection, and. The simple thought, men live, has two parts. 
F, men; S^ live. The simple thought, men die, has two parts, F, men; 
S, die. TLe simple thought, God lives forever, has two parts, F, God; 
S, lives forever. 
• Special Analysis. Here let the students give the special analysis. 

7. We perceived the enemy on our right, and the river on, 
mv left, therefore we halted and prepared for the charge. 

The expression of a Complex or Mixed Compound Thought. 

13, The narratee will have the complex or mixed 
thought which the narrator intended to express, when he per- 
ceives that the thought has an immediate element thought used 
as an idea only. 

1. " I will try it" has done wonders. 



EXPRESSION OF COMPOUND THOUGHT. 45 

Logically, I will try, etc., is a Complex or Mixed thought; bo- 
cause, it has the element thought, 1 will try it, used as the actor or 
first primary idea in the construction of a thought. 

Formula. F S T = — ~ — - ST = ~- S T. 
I will try it F S T 

Translation. F, I will try it ; S, has done; T, wonders. In which, 

F = /; S = will try ; T — it. 

2. I see that they run. XYZ = XY-— Z 

J that they run 

3. I see them [to] run. XTZ=XY ~^. 

Logically, I see, etc., is a Complex thought ; because, it has the 
element thought, that they run, them [to] run, used as the receiver 
or third primary idea in the construction of a thought. 

4. Your uncle, who [uncle] was here to-day, will be here 
to-morrow. 

Logically. Your uncle, etc., is a mixed thought ; because, it has 
the element thought, who was here to-day, used as an idea subordi- 
nate to the actor or first primary idea, uncle. 

Formula, PS-j^-S. 

Translation. F, your uncle who was here to-day ; S, will be here 
to-morrow. But, F = F, your uncle ; ( + ) F, who [uncle] ; S, was here 
to-dmy. 

5. They wept like children while he spake these things. 
Uncontracted, this example is — They like [as] children weep, ■ 

while he spake these things. 

In this example, the element thoughts, like children or as children 
weep, while he spake these tilings, are used as ideas subordinate to 
the action spake, to show how and when they wept. 

Formula. 12 = 1, they ; 2, wept like children while he spake these % 
things. But, 2 = 2, wept ; + like ; 1, children ; 2, weep ( + ) ', he; 
2, spake while ; 3, these things. 

6. I have returned the book which you lent to me. 

Formula. F S T=F S — 

Translation. F, I; S, have returned ; T, the book, which [book] 
you lent to me. In which, T = T, the book ; (-f ) T, which book; 
F, you ; S, lent to me. 



40 THE LOGIC OF LANGUAGE. [CHAP. II. g 

The expression of a Dependent Thought. 

14. The narratee will find the dependent thought, which 
the narrator intended to express, if he find an element 
thought used as an idea in the construction of a thought, 
or as one of the terms of a comparison. All other thoughts 
are independent. 

1. Is your mother well ? My mother is well. F S. 

Logical Analysis. Is your mother well ? is an Independent 
thought ; because, it is not used as an element thought, etc. 

2. Knows he his lesson ? He knows his lesson. F S T. 
Logically, knows he, etc., is an Independent thought ; because, etc. 

3. Is his lesson known by him ? His lesson is known by 
him. TSF. 

Note I. Every Simple thought must be an independent thought ; 
first, because no Simple thought can be an element in the construe, 
tion of a thought, and, second, because, every thought taken entire 
must be an independent thought. 

4 We think in thought language and we express our 
thoughts in thought language. F S t + F S T. 

Logically. We think, etc., is an independent thought ; because, 
every thought taken entire, is independent. Each of its elements 
is also an independent thought ; because, it is an element thought 
not used as an idea. 

5. The plants will grow if the rains come. 

Logically this example, taken entire, is an Independent thought ; 
and the element thought, the plants will grow, is also an independ- 
ent thought. 

The element thought, the rains come, is a Dependent thought ; 
because, it is an element thought used as an idea only. 

Formula. F — — — — -— r 

will grow if the rains come* 

6. Such men as these [men are] are seldom found. 



DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT THOUGHTS. 47 

The element thought, such men are seldom found, is Dependent ; 
because, it is used as one of the terms of a comparsion. The ele- 
ment thought, these men are, is also dependent ; because, it is used 
as one of the terms of a comparison. It is co-ordinate with the 
thought, such men are seldom found, to which it is joined by the 
correlation between the idea of connection, as, and the subordinate 
idea, such. 

Formula. TSf + F s. 

7. The horse ran as fast as he could run. 

The element thought, the horse ran as fast, is Dependent ; because, 
it is one of the terms of a comparison. The element thought//^ 
could run, is dependent ; because, it is used as one of the terms of a 
comparison. It is co-ordinate with the thought, the horse ran as fast, 
to which it is joined by the correlation between the connection, as, 
and the subordinate idea, as. 

8. I heard of them doing these things. 

Them doing these things, is a Dependent thought ; because, it is 
used as an idea subordinate to the action, heard, to which it is 
joined by the relation, of. It is a sub. Dep. thought. 

Formula. FS = F _ S n ■■ — — — — . 

heard of them doing these things 

9. I heard of Frank being a major. 

In this example, Frank being a major, is a sub. Dependent 
thought. 

S 



Formula. FS = F 



heard of Frank being a major' 



Note II. The student should observe that all Independent 
thoughts, whether entire, or element, are co-ordinates ; while, a 
dependent thought may be co-ordinate with the one on which it 
depends, or it may be subordinate to it. That is, element thoughts 
used as primary ideas, or as terms in comparisons, are co-ordinates 
with the element thoughts to which they belong All other De- 
pendent thoughts are subordinates. 

10. The tree, which [tree] stands there, bears fruit. 

Which tree stands there, is a sub. Dep. thought. 

Formula. F S T — ==--3= — — ■ — S T. 

The tree, which Btands there 



4:8 THE LOGIC OF LANGUAGE. [CHAP. n. 

11. She is happy when she sings. 

When she s? ngs, is a sub. Dep. thought. It is used as an idea sub* 
ordinate to, is. 
Formula. X Y = X, she happy ; Y, is when she sings. 

12. Have you learned the lesson which [lesson] was given 
to you ? 

Which was given to you, is used as an idea- subordinate to the re- 
ceiver, lesson ; hence, it is a sub. Dep. thought. 

Formula. 1 2 3 = 1 2 g-A^. 

13. Did you give the book to the boy to whom I sent it ? 
The element, to whom I sent it, is subordinate to the sub. idea, 

boy ; hence, etc. 

Formula. X Y Z = X - 7 . ., . , — a — = — «« Z. 
give to the boy to whom I sent it 

14. " England expects every man to do his duty " was 

Nelson's motto. 

The element, England expects every man to do his duty, is Depend- 
ent; because it is used as the first primary ; the element, every man 
to do his duty, is Dep.; because it is used as the receiver of the action, 
expects. 

15. He desired the boys to run. 

Formula. FST = FS =^. 

16. "Whatsover thing God doeth abideth. That thing, 
which thing God doeth, abideth. 

The element thought, which thing God doeth, is a Dependent 
thought, used as an element subordinate to the actor, thing. 

Dikection. The student should now analyze the examples in 
Chap. IV., and, having found a correct Formula for an example, 
should construct one or more sentences according to it. 



CHAPTEE in.— Rhetoric, 

1. Rhetoric is the name given to that part of the 
science of language which shows the narrator how to con- 
struct expressions for his Moods [feelings, emotions, pas- 
sions], and also for his Ideals [ideas, groups, thoughts] 
and how to make them attractive to the narratee. 

Lit. Def. The word, rhetoric, means the science of fluency [in 
speaking]. 

Analyses. Rhetoric, ic. science of; rhetor, of a fluent [speak- 
er]. The Greek name for a pleasant speaker is Rhetor, which, lit- 
erally, means the office of that which fimcs smoothly. 

2. Rhetoric is divided into two Parts; Constructive 
Rhetoric, and Ornamental Rhetoric. 

CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. 

Outline. Science of Constructive Rhetoric includes: 

I. Definitions of Constructive Rhetoric ; 
II. Words and their Construction ; 

III. Phrases, their Construction and Classifications. 

IV. Sentences, their Construction and Classifications ; 
V. Punctuation of Graphic Language. 

I. DEFINITIONS. 

3. Constructive Rhetoric is the science and art of ex- 
pressing Ideals, (Ideas, Groups, Thoughts,) by the use of 

Words. Phrases, Sentences and Punctuation. 

Lit. Dee. The word, constructive, means belonging to that 
which has been built or fixed together. 

Anal. Constructive, ive, belonging to, like; t, that which; 
Struc, has been built, fixed ; con, together. 

3 (49) 



50 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. III. 

Note I. Ornamental Rhetoric includes those means by which 
the expression of a thought is made pleasing and attractive to the 
narratee, so that he may be led to seek for the thought itself. This 
part of Rhetoric cannot be studied advantageously by a student, 
who is ignorant of grammar, and, beside, it does not come within 
the scope of this work. Chapter V., Philosophy of Language, is a 
full treatise on this important part of Rhetoric. 

II. WORDS. 

4L. A Word is one or more sounds or one or more let- 
ter s, used as the name of a mood or of an idea. (See Ch. 
L, Moods, Ideas.) 

1. Ah! Eh! Oh! Ugh! Humph! 

Rhetorical Analysis. Ah ! is a word ; because, phonically it is 
two sounds, graphically it is two letters used as the name or expres- 
sion of a mood. 

2. Stone. Apple. Love, Watch. Pound. 

Rhetorically, stone is a word ; because, it is spoken with four 
sounds, and written with five letters, and is the name of an idea. 
What particular idea is here expressed by the word stone, we 
do not know, because there is no circumstance which limits it. It 
'may be the name of a primary idea ; as, the stone lies on the ground ; 
take up that stone and stone the cattle. It may be used as a second- 
ary idea ; as a stone wall ; hit with a stone ; a stone color; a stone 
hammer; rich in precious stones; a stone weight of meat. 

Note II. These examples show the impossibility of parsing a 
word which is not used in a sentence ; since, a word is a noun, a 
pronoun, an adjective, etc., according to its use or office in a sen- 
tence. 

* Definitions of Words. 

5. The term, Definition, is used to name the means by which 
the signification or meaning of a term or word is made known. 

6 Definitions are of three kinds; Natural, Literal and 
Beat or Essential. 

Natural Definitions. 
7 . The Natural Definition of a word is the idea, notion or 
perception, which is named by that word. (Ph. Lang., Ch. III.) 



DEFINITIONS OF WORDS. 51 

8. The Literal Definition of a word is the meaning which 
a word has in its parts or elements. 

Note III. The Literal Definitions of words are found by their 
analyses, of which there are three kinds, called the Immediate, the 
Intermediate, and the Ultimate. 

According to the Immediate analysis words are ; — 

First. A Root, or a Primitive word ; as, tend, holy. 

Second. A Root word with a suffix ; as, tended, holiness. 

Third. A Root with a prefix ; as, pretend, unholy. 

Fourth. A Root with a suffix and a prefix ; pretended, unholiness. 

According to the Intermediate analysis, one, or more of the ele- 
ments, root, suffix, prefix, is farther analyzed without reducing the 
word to its ultimate elements. Thus, the Immediate analysis of 
the word multiplication, is, multiplication; its Intermediate 
analysis is, mul-i-(i)-plic-(a)-t-ion, in which the prefix and root are 
partly reduced to their ultimate elements, while the suffix, ion, re- 
mains unchanged. 

According to the Ultimate analysis, a word is analyzed to its ulti- 
mate sounds, or to its ultimate letters. 

Caution. What is said of an element as a root may not be true 
of it as a suffix or a prefix. Thus, re, as a root means use, history, 
while re, as a prefix means again, back. Thus, republic, return, etc 

Students may become practically familiar with this subject, by 
spending a few minutes daily, in the study of the words analyzed 
in this book, and also, of those belonging to Arithmetic and Geo- 
graphy. 

9. The Real or Essential Definition of a word explains 
the meaning or use of thai word as a name or term. 

Note IV. Since the same word may be used as the name for two 
or more ideas, it follows that the same word may have two or more 
Real or Essential definitions. 

Thus, the term, subject, is used in History as the name of one who 
is ruled or governed by another. In Architecture, as the foundation. 
In the construction of sentences, as the foundation or basis. In 
narration, as the name of that concerning which the narrator com- 
municates to the narratee. 

N. B. For the Abreviatjons or Contractions of words see Punc- 
tuation at the end of this Chapter. Labor and time may be saved 
by using these Contractions in written analyses. 



52 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. IH. 

III. PHRASES. 

Outline. The Science of Phrases, includes ; 

I. The Definitions ; 
II. The Elements; 

III. The Construction and Syntax; 

IV. The Classifications of Phrases. 

1 . A Phrase is the name or expression of a group of 

ideas, (See Ch. I., Groups.) 

Lit. Dep. The word, phrase, means something said or uttered. 
Anal. Phrase, e, state of, office of ; s = t, that which ; phra, 
tells, speaks. 

1. Red roses ; i* I or i I. Roses of Sharon ; I* i. 
Rhetorically, the expression, red roses, is a Phrase ; because it 

names a group of ideas, its formula is l* I. When the idea of re- 
lation is not expressed in the phrase its sign may be omitted or 
understood in the formula. 

2. A fine block of large houses ; i*i*I*i*i; or, s * s * P * 
s * s. The beautiful lily of the valley. 

3. Elements of Phrases. 

The Elements of phrases are Words, and Element phrases. 
9. A Word Element is a word used as an element in 
the construction of a phrase. 

1. A lofty range of mountains. Emma's father. The father of 

Emma. Our dear father. 

Rhetorically, a lofty range of mountains, is a phrase whose im- 
mediate elements are words only. 

4. An Element Phrase is a phrase used as an element 
in the construction of an entire phrase. 

2. The best yield of this very large field. 

Rhetorically, the best yield is an element phrase ; because, it 
names an element group of ideas, and is used as an element in the 
construction of the entire phrase, the best yield of this very large 
field. This very large field is an element phrase ; because, etc., 3fc 
very large is an element phrase ; because, etc. 

5. Element Phrases are divided into tico kinds ; Sep- 
arable and Inseparable. 

& 9 A Separable Element phrase is a phrase whose prin- 
cipal word can be used without destroying the sense of the 
phrase. 

Lit. Def. The word, separable, means may be parted. 



CONSTRUCTION OF PHRASES. 53 

Anal, hie, capable of, may be ; par, parted ; se = in (privative) 
not. 

7. An Inseparable Element phrase is a phrase whose 
principal word cannot be used alone without destroying 
the sense of the phrase, 

3. The fine old tune of Old Hundred. Tune of Old Hundred. 

The Element phrase, the fine old tune, is a Separable Element 
phrase ; because, its principal word, tune, may be used alone with- 
out destroying the sense of the entire phrase ; as Tune of Old Hun- 
dred. 

The Element phrase, Old Hundred, is an Inseparable El. p. ; 
because, neither of its elements can be used alone without destroy- 
ing the sense ; as, the fine Tune of Old, or the fine Tune of Hun- 
dred. 

8. Construction or Syntax of Phrases. 

The Construction or Syntax of Phrases includes ; first, the Uses 
or Offices of the Elements of Phrases ; and second, the Means of 
showing the Relations of these elements. 

0. The Uses or Offices of the Elements of Phrases are 
Principal, Adjunct, Relator and Personator Elements. 

10. Tlie Principal Element of a Phrase is the word 
7iaming the principal idea of a group, and is used as the 
basis or foundation on which the Phrase is constructed. 

1. Fragrant floicers. The very fragrant flowers of this beauti- 
ful boquet. 

In these phrases, the word, flowers, is the Principal element ; 
because, it names the principal idea of the group, and is used as 
the basis in the construction of the phrase. 

11. An Adjunct Element is a word, or a phrase nam- 
ing a subordinate idea, or subordinate group of ideas. 

Lit. Def. The word, adjunct, means that xchicli is joined ta 
[something.] 

Anal. Adjunct, t, ; jicnc,=jung, joined; ad, to. 

ad p ad p 

2. Red roses. Bright red roses. Beautiful roses of varied hues. 
In ex., 2, red is an Adjunct word element ; because, it names a 

subordinate idea and is used to lessen the meaning of the principal 
word, roses. 

Bright red is an Adjunct phrase; because it names a subordi- 
nate group, and is used, etc. It is a Separable phrase. 



54 CONSTKUCTIYE RHETORIC. [CHAP. in. 

I SB. The Relation of adjuncts to their principal ele- 
ments may be shown in five ways ; by Meaning only, by 
Position, by a Relator, by an Apostrophe and by a 
Hyphen. 

ad ad p ad 

3. Oh Union, strong and great ! Oh Thou eternal One / 

Rhetorically, the Relation of the adjunct, strong, to its princi- 
pal, Union, is shown by its meaning only. 

The phrase adjunct, eternal One, is related by meaning only to 
its principal (personated by Thou.) 

ad p ad p ad 

4. Cart horse. Horse cart. Sky blue. Blue sky. Bright eyed 
maidens. 

The Relation of the adjunct, cart, to its principal, horse, is 
shown by position only. 

5. The tops of mountains. The tops of far distant mountains. 
The relation of the adjunct, mountains, to its principal, tops, is 

shown by the relator, of. 

6. The mountain's top. The m,ountain-to^. The adj unct word, 
mountain's is related to its principal, top, by the apostrophe ; moun- 
tain is related to top by the hyphen. 

13. A Relator is a word naming a relation, and is 
used to show the relations between two elements, one of 
which is called the Antecedent, and the other the Subse- 
quent of the Relator. 

Lit. Def. The word, relator, means that which carries back. 
Anal. Relator, or, office of; t, that which; la, carries; re, 
back. 

14. The Antecedent of a relator is the element to 
which the relation of another element is shown by the rela- 
tor. 

Lit. Def. The word, antecedent, means going before [another]. 
Anal. Antecedent. (e)nt, state of that which ; ced, walks, goes; 
ante, before. 

15. The Subsequent Term of a relator is the word, 

whose relation to an antecedent term is shown by the rela- . 

tor. 

Lit. Def. The word, subsequent, means that which follows after 
[another]. 



CLASSIFICATIONS OF PHBASES. 55 

Anal. Subsequent. (e)nt, ; sequ, follows; sub, after. 

Thus, in the phrase, the friend of man, friend is the Antecedent 
and man is the Subsequent term of the relator, of. 

1 6. A Personator is a word, or a phrase used for 
ease or for euphony in the place of an element, which is 
called the Antecedent of the personator. 

Lit. Def. The word, personator, means office of one who speaks 
through [something]. 

Anal. Personator. or, office of ; (a)t, that which ; son, sound, 
speaks ; per, through, by. Anciently, play-actors wore masks, re- 
sembling the persons whose characters they represented ; hence, 
speaking a part through a mask came to be called personating a 
character. As the actor spoke through his mask, so, by compari- 
son, a word seems to speak through another word, representing it 
and standing in its place. 

1. Our glorious banner. Our own glorious banner. 

Our is a personator ; because, it is used in the place of an ad- 
junct element. The antecedent of the personator, our, is the name 
of the narrators. 

Our own is a phrase personator ; because, etc. 

2. O Thou eternal One ! None of you. 

Thou personates the name of the narratee, used as the principal 
word of the phrase. 

Classifications of Phrases. 

17. Phrases are classified according to their forma- 
Hon, and to their relations. 

18. According to formation, phrases are Simple and 
Compound. 

19. A Simple Phrase is the name or expression of a 
simple group of ideas. 

Its immediate elements are words. 

1. The longest lives. The lives of men. Men's lives. 
Rhetorically, the longest lives, is a Simple phrase ; because, it 

names a simple group of ideas. 

2. The uncle of Jane, s P * s. Jane's uncle, s * P. 
Rhetorically, the uncle of Jane is etc. s, the ; P. uncle ; B, of; 

e, Jane. 

Jane's uncle is a phrase in which Jane's is adjunct to the prin- 
cipal word, uncle, having its relation shown by the apostrophe, 
which is expressed in the formula by the R. 

20. A Compound Phrase is the name or expression of 



56 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC [CHAP. in. 

a compound group of ideas. Every Compound Phrase 
contains one, or more element phrases. 

1. The very best yield of this field. This field's very best yield. 
Rhetorically, this field's very best yield, is a compound phrase ; 

because, it names a compound group of ideas. Its immediate ele- 
ments are the adjunct phrases, this field's very best, principal word, 
yield ; and the relator, apostrophe, s. 

2. The rosy-fingered Morn, 2-3 2 1. The mother of the dews, 
2 1*32. 

Rhetorically, the rosy-fingered Morn, is a phrase ; because, 

Its principal word is Morn, to which, the is an adjunct word, 
and rosy-fingered is'an adjunct phrase ; because it names a group 
of ideas subordinate to its principal, Morn. 

The adjunct phrase, rosy -fingered, has for its principal word 
fingered, adjunct of Morn, and rosy, adjunct of fingered. 

Rhetorically, the mother of the dews, is a phrase. Principal 
word mother ; the, adjunct of mother.; the dews, adjunct phrase of 
mother ; relation shown by of; etc. 

21. Second Classification. According to relation, 
Phrases are of two kinds ; Dependent and Independent. 

92. A Dependent Phrase is an element phrase nam- 
ing a subordinate group of ideas. (Ch. L, Dependent 
Group.) 

Thus, in the phrases, very deep blue colors, stairway of the tower, 
the subordinate phrases, very deep, the tower, are Dependent 
phrases. 

S3, An Independent Phrase is; first, any entire 

phrase ; and, second, a simple element phrase having in 

it the principal word of the entire phrase. (Ch. I., Ind. 

Groups.) 

In the Compound phrase, The best lessons of true knowledge, 
Uncle Joseph's very good son, the principal phrases the best lessons, 
very good son, are Independent phrases. 

1. The general of the king's army. 

Formula. 2 1*43*2. Translation. 2, the; 1, general; * 
of; 4, the ; 3, king ; *, 's ; 2, army. 

2. Men of great knowledge. 

General Analysis. {At the option of the teacher, the student may 
give or omit the Logical Analysis. If, however, the student hesitate 
or err in the Rhetorical, he should be required, at once, to produce the 
Logical Analysis, as this is the basis of all the other analyses. 



SENTENCES. DEFINITIONS OF- 



IV. SENTENCES. 



51 



Outline. The science of Sentences includes ; first, the Defi- 
nitions ; second, the Elements and their relations ; third, the Con- 
struction or Syntax ; fourth, the Classification, and fifth, the Punc- 
tuation of Sentences. 

Definitions of Sentences. 

1. A Sentence is the name or expression of a thought 
Lit. Def. The word, sentence, means something thought, ar- 
ranged. 

Anal. Sentence, ence, state of ; t, that which [has been] ; sen, 
thought, arranged. 

Note I. The term, Sentence, is sometimes used to mean the 
thought itself; and, sometimes, the language expressing the 
thought. (See Chap. V., Metonymy?) 

1. The good Creator gave the tlse of Thought Language to 
mankind. 

The good Creator, etc., is a Sentence ; because, it is the name or 
expression of a thought. 

Elements of Sentences and their Relations. 

2. The Elements of Sentences are Element Words, 
Inseparable Phrases, and Element Sentences or Clauses, 

1. Men seek knowledge. FST. 

Rhetorically, Men seek knowledge, is a sentence ; because it 
expresses a thought. Its elements are the words, men seek knowl- 
edge. 

3. An Insepaeable Phrase is a phrase used as an 
element in the construction of a sentence. 

2. The Jersey-Blues were singing Old Hundred. 
Rhetorically, the Jersey, etc., is a sentence ; because, etc. It 

contains three inseparable phrase elements, the Jersey-Blues, were 
singing, Old Hundred. 

Note I. For convenience, however, a separable phrase may be 
called a Phrase element of a sentence. 

3. In the same year the Commander-in-chief will be revisiting 
that famous old resort, " The Newport House/' 

Ex., 3, Contains both word and phrase elements. 

4. An Element Sentence or Clause is a sentence nam* 
ing an element thought, and used as a part of an entire 
sentence. 

5. Clauses or element sentences are co-ordinate and 

3* 



58 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. m. 

subordinate as the element thoughts, which they name, 
are co-ordinate and subordinate. 

1. Life is real [and] life is earnest, and the grave is not its 
goal. 

Life, etc., is a sentence ; because, etc, having three co-ordinate 
clauses or element sentences, life is real, life is earnest, the grave 
is not its goal. 

2. He, who does good to others, will find friends when he needs 
them. 

He, etc., is a sentence ; because, etc. It has three clauses, first cl., 
he will find friends, is the leading or principal cl. of the sen. ; be- 
cause, it names the leading or principal element thought. 

The second cl., who does good to others, is a subordinate cl. ; be- 
cause, it names a subordinate element thought. The third cl., 
when, is a subord, cl. ; because, etc. 

@. The Relations and the Connections of the elements 
of sentences are divided into three kinds ; Logical, Rhe- 
torical and Grammatical. 

Note. An element having a Logical relation is said to be logi- 
cally related or related logically ; a Rhetorical relation, rhetorically, 
related or related rhetorically, and a Grammatical relation, Gram- 
matically related, or related grammatically . 

7. A Logical Relation is a relation shown by the mean- 
ing of the element. 

1. Beneath it burst the cannon's roar. The cannon's roar burst 
beneath it. 

In this sentence, the relation of the element, roar, name of the 
actor, to the element, burst, name of the action, is shown by mean- 
ing only ; hence, it is a logical relation or their elements are logi- 
cally related. 

2. What is that which you have in your hand ? This, which 
I have in my hand, is a letter. 

In this Ex., the elements, what, that, which, this are related log- 
ically or by meaning only, to their principal elements understood ; 
thus, What thing is that thing, which thing you, etc. This thing, 
which thing . 

8. A Rhetorical Relation, or Connection is one in 
which the Relation, or Connection of an element is shown ; 
first, by Position; second, by a Relator ; third, by an Ad- 
junct; fourth, by a Connector ; fifth, by Form; and sixth f 
by Punctuations. (See Punctuations, Second Kind.) 

3. Position. Did Washington conquer Cornwallis ? Did Corn- 
wallis conquer Washington ? 

In these examples, the relations of the elements are shown by 
position. 



RELATIONS OF ELEMENTS. 59 

4. A horse chestnut is not a chestnut horse ? 

5. Relator. The message sent by Frank to Asa was for Job to 
come quickly. 

In this ex., the relation of Frank to sent, is shown by the rela- 
tor, by. 

6. Adjunct. The man, who hands you this note, will bring me 
the package, which I need, when he comes. 

The clause, who hands you this note, is rhet. joined to the el., 
man, by the adjunct, who. The cl., which 1 need, has its rhet. R. to 
the el., package, shown by the ad., which. When, shows the rhet. 
R. of, when he returns to will bring. 

7. Connectors. The winds blow and the waves roll, but the 
mountains remain unmoved. « 

The cl., the winds blow, is connected rhetorically, by and (name 
of the connection), to its co-ordinate cl., the waves roll. 

8. Form. He wrote about trees growing on the sea-shore. 1 
desired the lady to sing a song. 

The subord. cl., trees growing on the sea-shore, is joined to the 
el., wrote, by its form, and by the relator, about. 

9. Punctuation. The hill-top is the top of the hill or the hill's 
top. Boys' shoes are shoes for boys. 

Hill is rhetorically related to top by a hyphen [-] ; hill's by the 
apostrophe [']. 

10. " Love your enemies," is a Divine precept. Love your en- 
emies is related to is a divine precept by the quotation marks [" "]. 

Note I. The Grammatical Relations of the Elements of sen- 
tences are explained in Grammar, Chap. IV. 

9. Ellipsis or Omission £9 the name given to a process 
by which an element of a sentence is not expressed / or, 
is understood. 

Lit. Def. The words ellipsis, omission, mean the condition of 
that which has been left out. 

Anal. Ellipsis, is, = sion, being condition of ; s = t, ; lip, 

has been left ; el = ex, out. 

Omission, sion = sis ; mis, has been sent or put ; = ex. 

1. The ice was here, the ice was there, the ice was around us 
everywhere. 

Ellipsis. The ice was here, there and everywhere. 

10. A Contracted Sentence is one from which one, or 

more elements have been ellipticised or omitted. 

Lit. Def. The word, contracted, means drawn together. 

Anal. Contracted, ed, office of, did ; t, ; trac, has been 

drawn, draws ; con, with, together. 

2. The ice was in this place, and the ice was in that place, and 
the ice was around us in every place. The ice was here, there, 
everywhere. 



60 



CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. UL 



TABIE, 

Comparison and Definitions of Offices of the ElemenU 

of Sentences. 



Uses or Off's 


Elements 
of Sentences. 


Logically. 


Rhetorically. 


1. A Subj. is a 


W. 


p. 


CI. 


naming a 


1st, or 3d, P. I. 


Used as a basis of a 
Sentence. 


2. A Pred. is a 


w. 


p. 




i u 


2nd. P. I. 


" to ask or tell 
about a Subj. 


3. A. D. Obj. is a 


w. 


p. 


CI. 


& u 


3d. P. I. 


" in a Sent, act'ly 
constructed. 


4. A Rel'r is a 


w. 






» u 


I. of rel'n. 


" to relate a sub. 
to an ant. term. 


5. I. Ob. is a 


w. 


p. 


CI. 




1st. 
P. or Snb. I. 


" to limit a Pred. 
to which it is rel't 
by a Relator. 


6. An Adj't is a 


w. 


p. 


CI. 


« „ 


Sub. I. 


t; to limit a non- 
Pred. to wn\ it is 
rel'd by position. 


7. A Pers'r is a 


w. 


p. 




« * 


1st. P. 3d P. or 
Sub. I. 


" in place of a Sub. 
Obj. or Ad. El. 


8. A Conn'r is a 


w. 
w. 


p. 


CI. 


« u 


I. of conn'n 


4t to join two id'a. 


9. AnExel'veisa 


" * il.,Gr.,orTho't 

1 


" to exp'sem'n, or 
pass'n. 



(For explanation of this Table, see Definitions of Subjects, Predicates, etc.) 

1 1. The Elements of Sentences are divided into four 
kinds ; — 

First. Principal Elements ; Subjects, Predicates, Direct Objects. 
Second. Limiting Elements ; Indirect Objects, Adjuncts. 
Third. Joining Elements; Relators, Connectors. 
Fourth. Personating Elements ; Personators. 

1. Suggestions for an Objective Oral Lesson in Subjects to- 
gether with exercises, etc. mav be found in Chap. Ill of the First 
Course, which see. 



SUBJECTS. — DEFINITIONS OF — 61 

I. SUBJECTS. 

Outline. Tlie Science of the Subject includes; first, the Defi- 
nitions ; second, the Relations ; third, the Selection ; fourth, the 
Ellipsis or Omission, and fifth, the Syntax of Subjects. 

Definitions, 

1 . The Subject of a sentence is a word, a phrase, or 
d clause, naming either the first, or the third primary 
ideal (idea, group, thought), and used as the foundation 
or basis in the construction of the sentence. 

Lit. Def. The word, subject, means that which has been put 
under. 

Anal. Subject, t, that which ; jec, has been put or placed ; sub, 
under. That is, as a foundation or basis. 



1. Word subj. The showers 1 
refresh the drooping leaves. F 
S T. 

In ex. 1, the word, showers, is 
the subject of the sentence) because 
it names the first primary idea, or 
actor, and is used as the basis in 
the construction of the sentence. 



2. The drooping leaves 1 are re- 
freshed by the showers. T S F. 

In ex. 2, the word, leaves, is the 
subject of the sentence ; because, 
it names the third primary idea, 
or the receiver of the action, and 
is used as the foundation in the 
construction of the sentence. 



p. l. 

3. Phrase subj. "Our glorious banner" was shouted by all. 

TSF. 

Rhetorically, our- glorious banner is an inseparable phrase sub- 
ject of the sentence ; because, it names an inseparable group as a 
receiver and is used, etc. 

CI. 1. 

4. Clause subj. "i will try it" has done wonders. F ST.=^ 
F 

F 8 T. S + Y " 

Rhet., 1 will try it is a clause subject of the sentence ; because, 
it names a thought as a first primary ideal, and is used, etc. 

Note I. Sentences, used as Definitions, Explanations, etc., have 
two, or more Subjects, called First Subject, Second Subject, etc. ; 
these are used synonymously or in apposition. 

5. Does John, 1 the carpenter, 1 own this house ? John, the car- 
penter, does own this house. 12 3 = 1123. 

Special Analysis. The words, John, carpenter, name the same 
actor or first primary idea ; and, are used, synonymously, as mb- 
jects of the sentence. John being ikejii*st Subject ; carpenter, the 
second Subject. 



62 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. III. 

6. Was John 1 called the Professor ? ! Jolin was called the Pro- 
fessor. The child was called Joseph. 

Written Analysis or Formula. T S f . Translation ; T, John, 
the Professor ; S, teas called ; f , understood Hence, this formula 
might be written T T S f. 

Special Analysis. John, Professor, name the receiver or third 
primary idea ; and, are used as the first and second Subjects of the 
sentence. 

7. Napoleon 1 III., king 1 and author, 1 is a husband, 1 a father, 1 a 
tactician, 1 and a disciplinarian. 1 

Relations of a Subject to its sentence. 

3» The Relations of Word, and of Phrase Subjects to 
their sentences may be shown logically or by meaning / 
rhetorically, by position, or by a relator. The relation 
of Clause subjects may be shown by the form of the 
clause, by one of the inceptive relators, that, for, by the 
personator, it, or by the quotation marks. 

1. Meaning. Beneath it rang the battle shout ! 

2. Position. Asa 1 sees Anna. Anna 1 sees Asa. 

3. By Relator. I desired the boy 1 to bring my hat. The 
boy 1 was desired to bring my hat by me. 

In ex., 10, the relations between the subject, boy, and the predi- 
cate, bring, are shown by the relator, to. 

4. Form of clause. These persons were supposed to be the 
men by us. These persons to be the men was supposed by us. 

In ex., 11, the relation of the clause subject, these^persons to be 
the men, is shown to the rest of its sentence by its position and by 
its form, which consists in having the relations between its sub- 
ject, persons, and its predicate, be, shown by the relator, to. 
4 cl. 1. 

5. Inceptive Rel. That these persons were the men was sup- 

4 
posed by us. That we are here is good for us. 

The relations between the cl. subj. these persons were the men, 
and its predicate, was supposed are shown by the inceptive relator, 
that. 

6. For us to be here is good for us. 

The inceptive relator, for, shows that the cl. subj., us to be 
here good, has a co-ordinate relation to the predicate, is. 

7. Personator. It 1 is good for us to be here. 
It 1 is good that we are here. 

8. Quotation. "Thou art tlieman" was said unto David by 
Nathan. 



SELECTION OF SUBJECTS. 



63 



Selection of Subjects. 

3. According to the definition, a subject must name 
either the actor (First P. I.), or the receiver of the ac- 
tion (Third P. I.) When the subject names the actor, 
the sentence is said to be Actively Constructed, but 
when the subject names the receiver, the sentence is said 
to be Passively or lleceivingly Constructed. 

Note I. For convenience, a subject naming the actor, may be 
called a Subject (Actor), and a subject naming the receiver, may be 
called a Subject (Receiver). 

Rule. Either take the name of the actor for the sub- 
ject and construct the sentence actively ; or, take the name 
of the receiver for the subject and construct t/w sentence 
passively or receivingly. 

Subjects naming Actors. Subjects naming Receivers. 

1. .Is Jane . singing songs? 2. Are songs sung by Jane ? 

Jane is singing songs. Songs are sung by Jane. 

3. The farmer was plowing 4. The land was plowed by 

the land. the farmer. 

Note II. The student will find help in fixing the differences 
between sentences, whose subjects name the actors and those 
whose subjects name the receivers, by observing carefully the 
following ; — 







TABLE. 








Subject. 


Predicate. 


D. Object. 


Relator. 


Ind. Obj. 


Act. ConsVd. 
Act. Const' d. 
rass. ConsVd. 


1st. Prim. I. 
1st. Prim. I. 
3d. Prim. I. 


2d. Prim. I. 
2d. Prim. I. 
2d. Prim. I. 


3d. Prim. I. 


Relation. 
Relation. 
Relation. 


Subord. I. 
Siibord. I. 
1st. Prim. I. 
Subord. I. 



In this Table, we see first, that the name of the actor may be 
used as a Subject, or as an Indirect Object; second, 

That the name of the receiver may be used as a First Object, or 
as the Subject of a sentence. 

5. Moss 1 grows on stones. 

6. Girls gather flowers for boquets. 

7. Flowers 1 are gathered for boquets by girls. 



64 CONSTBL'CTIYE IIHETOBIC. [CHAP. IIL 

Ellipsis or Omission of Subjects. 

4: # Subjects may be omitted by the narrator and lender- 
stood by the narratee ; first, in commands, entreaties, 
answers, or responses, etc. ; second, wh^n the same Subject 
occurs in two or more clauses of the same sentence. 

Rule. Express the subject of the first clause, and omit 
the subjects of the remaining clauses. 

1. Command. Go in peace. Come hither to me, Hurrah 
for the President ! Hail, Columbia ! 

The subject of the sentence, go in peace, is the name of the nar- 
ratee. It is omitted by the narrator, because he is addressing the 
command to the narratee, who, of course, understands that his 
own name is the subject, understood. 

2. Entreaty. Grant us thy blessing. Forgive us our debts. 
Lend me your knife. 

Note I. When the subject is omitted, the student should sup- 
ply the name of the narratee rather than the personator of that 
name ; thus, Jane says to Mary, " Bring my book to me," in which, 
bring should be described as the predicate of the subject, Mary, 
understood. 

3. Answers or Responses. What did John do ? 

Ans. — Studied his lessons. What were you doing yesterday ? 
Response. — Fishing, — skating, — picking berries. 

4. Subjects of CI. John walks, rides, jumps, sits, and whistles. 
Birds sit, and birds stand, and birds hop, and birds fly. Fruit 
trees grow, and blossom, and bear fruit. 

Fruit trees grow, etc., is a sentence, having three clauses. The 
subject, fruit trees, is expressed in the first clause, and understood 
in the others. Its uncontracted or full form is ; — 

Fruit trees grow, and fruit trees blossom, and fruit trees bear 
fruit. 

5. Godfrey is very fond of — playing ball. Godfrey is very 
fond of [Godfrey's] playing ball. 

6. I desired — to sing. I desired [myself] to sing. The brother 
expected [himself] to inherit the farm, but — did not inherit it. 

7. A lesson, which is carelessly studied, will be poorly recited. 
In ex. 24, the subject, lesson, is expressed in the first clause 

and understood in the second. Its uncontracted form is ; — 
A lesson, which lesson is carelessly, etc. 

8. Henry has the book, that [book] belongs to him 

9. A girl, who [girl] work3 well, may dance, sing, and play 
well. 



SYNTAX OF SUBJECTS. 65 

10. To be, or not to be, is the question. 

[For ine] to be, or [for me] not to be, is the question. The 
question is [for me] to be, or — not to be. 

Syntax of Subjects. 

5. The Rhetorical Syntax of a Subject depends upon 
the emphasis of the subject ; hence, we have the follow- 
ing :— 

Rule I. A subject which is emphatic must be placed 
before its predicate, when it is used in a responsive, in a 
declarative or historic, in a conditional limiting or lessen- 
ing sentence. 

1. Responsive. Do birds fly ? Responsive or Answers. Birds 1 
fly 2 . Birds 1 d# 2 fly 2 . Birds 1 are 2 flying 2 . 

2. Declarative or Historic. Birds 1 fly 2 . The lady 1 heard 2 the 
birds 1 [to] sing 2 . That men 1 should? obey 2 the laws 1 is a self-evi- 
dent proposition. 

3. Conditional. I 71 will 2 go 2 if the boat 1 come 2 in time. 

Note I. Rule I rests on a principle, common to all languages, 
that an emphatic element should be placed at the beginning of a 
sentence, when this can be done, without depriving the narratee 
of the means of ascertaining the use or office of that element. 

Exception. — In poetic, and in highly descriptive narrative, the 
subject may be placed in any part of the sentence. 

4. Transposed Subj. Beneath it burst 2 the cannon's roar 1 . 
Rule II. A subject, vjhich is not emphatic, must follov? 

the emphatic word of the sentence ; hence, in exclamative, 
in interrogative, and in imperative sentences, the subject 
must follow the predicate, or some part of it. 

Note II. In these sentences, if a principal predicate only be 
used, it must, of course, be emphatic and the subject must follow 
it ; if an auxiliary be emphatic, the subject must follow the auxil- 
iary : if an adjunct word be emphatic, the subject must follow the 
adjunct and its predicate. 

5. Principal verb emphatic. Laughest thou, Lochiel? Said 
he so? 

6. Auxiliary verb emphatic. Dost thou laugh, Lochiel ? Did 
he say this? 

7. Adjunct of the verb emphatic. When said he this? Why 
dost thou lau^h ? 



66 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. III. 

Logical and Rhetorical Analyses of Subjects. 

1. The showers refresh the drooping leaves. X Y Z. 
General Analysis. Logically, showers, etc., is a Simple Thought 

of three Parts ; First Part, the showers, consists of the subord. idea, 
the, incidentally related to the first primary idea or actor, showers. 
The Second Part, refresh, is the second primary idea, or action of 
the actor, shoicers. The Third Part is the Separable group, the 
drooping leaves, of which the is subordinate to the receiver, leases, 
the subordinate, drooping, has an incidental relation to the third 
primary idea, leaves, which is the receiver of the action, refresh. 

Rhetorically, the showers, etc., is a simple sentence ; because, etc. 
Its subject is the word, showers. 

Special Analysis. Showers, logically is the actor or first pri- 
mary idea ; rhetorically, showers is used as the subject of the sentence ; 
because, it names the actor or first primary idea, and has the office 
of, or is used as the basis or foundation in the formation of the 
sentence. It is a Word Subject. 

Note 1. When students have^become familiar with the order 
of a Special Analysis, the terms, logically, rhetorically, may be 
omitted ; because, in giving the Special Analysis, we commence 
with the logical value of the word, and begin its rhetorical use or 
office with the words, used as. Thus, showers is the actor or first 
primary idea, and is used as the subj ect of the sentence. Under 
the same circumstances, the logical part of the Special Analysis 
may be omitted. 

2. The drooping leaves are refreshed by the showers. Z Y X. 
General Analysis. As in ex., 1. 

Special Analysis. Logically, leaves is — ; rhetorically, leaves is 
used as the subject of the sentence ; because it names the third 
primary idea or receiver, and has the office of, or is used as the ba- 
sis or foundation of the sentence. It is a Word Subject. 

Errors in the Use of Subjects. 
The first kind of Errors in the Use of Subjects is 
called " Violating the Unity of the Subject." (See Phil- 
osophy of Language, Chapter V.) 

1. Error. Father, he said so. 
Corrected. Father said so. 

2. Error. The ship being ready, we went to sea. 

Corrected. The ship being ready, went to sea. When the ship 
was ready we went to sea. 

Errors in the Selection of Subjects. 
Attempts are often made to construct sentences by using, as 



ERRORS IN USE OF SUBJECTS. 67 

subjects, words naming secondary ideas. Formerly, these attempts 
were very common among " the best speakers/' and among " the 
best writers" of the English language. They were seldom or 
never used by the Romans, or by the Greeks. They are to be con- 
demned logically, because they always obscure the thought which 
they are intended to express ; and, rhetorically, because they generally 
require " a mean little word at the end of the sentence." They are con- 
demned by the Rhetoricians both of Ancient and of Modern times. 
Horace says, u Nor should a mean little word be allowed to end a 
sentence ; unless, you wish to degrade the subject by the style." 
u Parturiunt montesnascitur ridiculus mus" — Ars. Poetica. 

44. Error. " Charles was applied to." 

Charles names neither the actor nor the receiver of the act, was 
applied. The expression being intended to say that Charles was re- 
quested, or desired, or asked, or entreated, etc. In fact, the words, Charles 
was applied to, name a Second Part only. The whole sentence being 
somebody applied to Charles. 1 2. No Third part is mentioned, as is 
the case, when we say, " The surgeon applied a plaster to Charles. EST. 

When an error of this kind occurs, the expression should be declared 
either not to express a thought, and hence, not a sentence; or to express 
the thought erroneously, and hence, to be faulty. It should be corrected 
at once, either by supplying a subject, or by changing the word naming 
the action. 

45. Charles was applied to. 

General Analysis. Charles was, etc., is not a sentence ; because, it 
does not contain a thought. Charles was applied to is merely a phrase ; 
principal idea, was applied; secondary, Charles ; to, idea of relation. 

Corrected Forms. Eirst; Somebody applied to Charles. Second; 
Charles was requested, desired, asked, entreated, etc. 

46. John was told the tale. 

General Analysis. John was told, etc., contains a thought, improperly 
expressed ; hence, it is an incorrect sentence. It is incorrect, because 
it is an attempt to form a sentence on the word, John, the name of a 
secondary idea. Its proper forms are ; — 

(Subject not expressed) told the tale to John. 
The tale was told to John by . 

4 7. The trial was proceeded with. . Incorrect 

Corrected Form. The trial was continued. proceeded with 

the trial. 



68 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. HI. 

H 

48. William was paid ten dollars. Incorrect 

49. Jane was spoken to. Incorrect. 

50. The boy was laughed at by the man. Incorrect. 

Corrected Forms. The boy was ridiculed by the man. The boy was 
derided by the man. The man laughed at the boy. 

51. "The second person is the person spoken to." "The 
third person is the person spoken of." Errors. 

Correction. The second person is the person addressed ; the second 
person is the narratee. 

Second Error. Sometimes the narrator, having commenced the 
construction of a sentence with a particular word as a subject, sud- 
denly interposes another word as a subject, and then, completes the 
sentence. This is called Breaking or violating the Unity of a Subject. 
(See Chap. V., Unity of Subjects.) This error may be corrected by re- 
jecting one of the Subjects, and finishing the sentence with reference 
to the other. 

52. The dog, being rabid, his master shot him. Incorrect. 

First Correction. The dog, being rabid, was shot by his master 
Second Correction. The master shot the dog, because he was rabid. 

53. The stranger, being poor and needy, the people gave 
him money. Incorrect 

54. The soldier, being wounded, his comrades carried him 
to his tent. Incorrect 

For Errors in Definitions of Subjects, see Chap. VI., Definitions. 

Note IX. When a word, apparently a relator, appears at the end of 
a construction, one error surely exists, while three may exist. Of 
these, one may be a logical, as in the examples given above; another, 
is a rhetorical error. (See Position or Syntax of the Relator.) For the 
third Error, see Grammar, Prepositions. 

The student should now turn to Chap. II., and give the Special 
Analyses, both logical and rhetorical, through Subjects, changing each 
sentence from its Passive to its corresponding Active form ; and, from 
its Active to its corresponding Passive, when thisns possible. 

Exercise. 
1, Look around, and tell, in corresponding Actively and Passively 



SUBJECTS... — EXERCISE. £9 

constructed simple sentences, the names of what you see. Give the 
Special Analysis of each Subject. 

2. In like manner, tell what you hear. Analyze the Subjects. 

3# Name and describe something that you can touch. 

4. Name and describe something that you can taste. 

5. Name and describe something that you can learn in none of these 
ways 

6. Now repeat each one of these exercises, and put the name of the 
actor, who sees, hears, etc., in each sentence. It may be your own, or 
it may be another person's name. 

V. At the next recitation, bring a written exercise of this kind, 
describing something that you have seen, heard, etc. 

8. Notice carefully every sentence that you speak, or write ; also, 
every sentence that you hear, or read ; and, examine those that please 
you, to find what element in them gives you pleasure. In like manner, 
examine those that displease you, to find what element or elements in 
them are displeasing. This knowledge will be useful to you as a means 
of self-improvement, if you bear in mind that whatever is acceptable to 
you in another's use of language, will be very likely to be acceptable 
to others in your use of it; and, that whatever is not acceptable to you 
in another's use of language, will be quite as likely not to be acceptable 
to others in your use of it. 

Finally, if you succeed in selecting the right words for the subjects 
of the sentences which you construct, you will be quite sure to avoid 
the larger portion of those errors of construction into which the nar- 
rator is quite sure to fall, who is careless in his selections, or who is 
ignorant of the principles on which these selections should be made. 

The students may now turn to the selections at the end of this 
Work, and while reading, select the subject of each sentence which 
is read. 



W CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. III. 



II. PREDICATES OR AFFIRMERS. 

Outline. The Science of Predicates includes, first, th# Defi- 
nitions ; second, the Relations; third, the Selection; fourth, the 
Ellipsis, and fifth, the Syntax of Predicates or Affirmers. 

1 . A Predicate or Affirmer is a word, or a phrase, 

naming the action or second primary idea, and used to 

ask or to tell concerning the subject of a sentence. 

Lit. Def. The word, predicate, means that which tells about 
[something.] 

Lit. Def. The word, affirmer, means that which makes sure 
concerning [something]. 

Anal. Predicate, e, state of, Office of ; (a)t, ; die, tells, 

speaks, declares ; pre, about, concerning. 

Anal. Affirmer, er, office of, one which ; firm, makes sure, 
tells ; of = ad, concerning, toward [something]. 

1. Word Pred. Fell* the rain 1 heavily ? The rain 1 fell* heav- 
ily last night. F S. 

Rhetorically, fell is the predicate of the subject. Fell is n 
predicate or affirmer ; because, it names an action, and is used to 
ask and also to tell concerning the subject, rain. 

2. Asa desired 2 the boy 1 to read* the story of Washington. 

xy z 
Asa desired the boy 8 to read* the story of Washington's 1 cutfing* 

the cherry tree. x y 

x y z * (x y z). 

In ex., 2, read is the predicate of the subject, boy. Bead is a 
predicate ; because, etc. 

Cutting is the predicate of the subject, Washington's; because, 
etc. 

3. Asa heard about Washington 1 cutting* the cherry tree. F S 
t*(FST). 

4. Phrase Pred. Asa did desire* the story 1 to be read* by the 
boy. x y 



z y x 

I 3. A Phrase Predicate consists of two or more predi- 
cates ; of which, one is called the Principal Predicate; 
the others are its Auxiliary Predicates. 

Relations of Predicates. 
5. The Relation of the Predicate to the Mood of its 



RELATIONS OF PREDICATES. 71 

narrator is shown by the Form of the predicate, while 
the Relation of a predicate to its subject is shown by the 
Voice of the predicate. 

6. The Forms* which show the relation of predicates 
to the moods of narrators, are three in number; the 
Simplest, the Emphatic, and the Periphrastic Forms. 

H . The Simplest Form of a predicate is a Form, 
which has no part of the predicates, do, be, as auxilia- 
ries. It shows an ordinary mood of the narrator in re- 
gard to the narration. 

1. Lotos 2 the ox over his fodder? The ox lows 2 over his fodder. 
Go thou in peace. Hear me, my friends. 

2. I shall come. I have come. I shall have come. I will come. 
I will have come. 

The predicates, lows, shall come, etc., are in their Simplest 
Forms ; because, they have no parts of the predicates, do, be, as 
auxiliaries. 

8. The Emphatic Form of a predicate is a Form, 
which has a part of the predicate, do, as an auxiliary. 
It shows an extraordinary mood (emotion, passion), of 
the narrator in regard to the narration. (See Mood 
Lang. Emphasis). 

Lit. Def. The word, emphatic, means spoken within, or deep. 

Anal. Emphatic, ic = ion, being science of, — ; t, — ; pha = 
phras, speaks ; em = en = in, within, deep. 

8. Does the ox low over his fodder ? The ox does low over his 
fodder. Dost thou hear ? 

4. Do you love music ? I do love music. 

5. Do. thou go in peace. Do hear me, my friends. 

6. Didst thou receive it? Thou didst receive it ! He did do it. 
The predicates, does low, do love, dost hear, did do, didst receive, 

etc., are Emphatic terms ; because, each has a part of the predi- 
cate, do, used as an auxiliary. 

9. The Periphrastic Form of a predicate has some 
part of the predicate, be, as an auxiliary. 

Lit. Def. The word, periphrastic, means a roundabout phrase 
or saying. 

Anal. Periphrastic, tic, — ; phras, = phrase, saying, speech; 
Z/eri, around, about. See Circumlocution. 

7. Will I be studying my lesson ? I will be studying my lesson. 



72 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. m. 

8. Will my lesson be studied by me ? 

9. Ami reading? I am reading. 

The predicates, will be studying, will be studied, and am reading, 
are Periphrastic Forms ; because, each has some part of the predi- 
cate, BE, as an auxiliary. 

While the student is studying these Forms, his attention should 
be directed to Chap. J?., Syntax Elements of Mood Language ; to 
Chap. Ill, Syntax of Subjects and of Predicates, and to Chap. IV., 
Conjugation of Verbs. 

1©. The term, Voice of a predicate is given to those 

Forms by which the predicate shows lohether its subject is 

a Subject (Actor), or a Subject (Receiver). 

Lit. Def. The word, voice, means belonging to sound, speech. 
Anal. Voice, e, belonging to ; voic = voc = vok, sound, speech. 
(See vocal, revoke). 

11. The Voices of predicates are divided into two 
kinds ; the Active Voice, and the Passive Voice. 

1 2. The term, Active Voice includes cdl predicates in 

the Simplest, in the Emphatic, and in those Periphrastic 

Forms, whose principal predicates end in ing. 

Lit. Def. The word, active, signifies that which acts, does. 
Anal. Active, ive, belonging to — like ; t, — / ac = ag, acts, 
does. 

1. Active Voice, Simplest. Fannie tries, 2 Fannie has tried, 2 
Fannie will have tried 2 

The predicates, tries, has tried, will have tried, being in the 
simplest forms, show that their subject, Fannie, names the first 
primary idea ; hence, they are said to have the Active Voice. 

2. Act. Voice, Ernp'c. The boys do try. The girls did try. 
Anna does try. Thou, Anna, didst try. Dost thou try ? 

The predicates in ex., 2, have the Active Voice ; because, they 
are Emphatic Forms which always show that their subjects name 
the first primary idea or actor. 

B. Act. Voice, Peri'c. Jane is singing songs 2 Jane will be 
singing songs. Jane will have been singing songs. 

The predicates in ex., 8, have the Active Voice ; because, they 
are those periphrastic forms whose subjects name first primary 
ideas, which is shown by the suffix, ing, of the principal verb. 

13. The Passive Voice includes all predicates in 
those periphrastic Forms, whose principal predicates do 
not end in ing. 



SELECTION" OF PREDICATES. 73 

Lit. Def. The word, passive, means like the receiver. 

Anal. Passive, ive, — ; s = t, — ; pas = pat, receives. (See 
patience, patient. 

4. The land was ploughed by the man. The house was built by 
the job. The song is sung by Jane. 

The predicates in ex., 4, have the Passive Voice ; because, 
they are those periphrastic forms, whose subjects name # third pri- 
mary ideas or receivers, which is shown by the fact, that the prin- 
cipal predicates, ploughed, built, sung, do not end in ing. (See Chap. 
IV., Regular and Irreg. Verbs.) 

Selection of Predicates. 
14. According to definition, a predicate must name a 
Second Primary idea, or group, hence we have the fol- 
lowing ;— 

Rule. Take the name of the Second Primary idea, or group for 
the predicate, and if the subject name the actor, put the predicate in 
its Active voice; but, if the subject name the receiver, put the predi- 
cate in the Passive or receiving voice. 



Active Voice. 

1. Lows the ox ? 
The ox lows. 

2. Does the ox low ? 
The ox does low. 

3. Is the ox lowing ? 
The ox is lowing. 

Active Voice. 

4. Men dig gold. 

5. Men do dig gold. 

6. Men are digging gold. 
8. He has horses to be let. 



Passive Voice. 

A predicate naming an ac- 
tion which does not admit a re- 
ceiver, must not be put in the 
passive voice. (See Chap. IV., 
Transition of Verbs.) 



Passive Voice. 

Sim'st F. Not used in P. V.] 
Emp'ic F. " * 

7. Gold is dug by men. 



Common Error. He has horses to let. 

The subject, horses, names the receiver of the action, to let ; 
hence the predicate should be in the passive or receiving voice. 

9. He had gone before we came. " Mine hour has not yet 
come." 

Errors. The man was gone before we came. Mine hour is 
not yet come. 

The subjects, man, hour, are subject (actors) hence, their pre- 
dicates had gone, has come, must be in the active, voice, and in ad- 
dition to this, a predicate, whose action does not admit a receiver, 
cannot have the passive voice. To this law, the correct use of the 
English Language admits no exception, not even those sanctioned 
by " the usage of the best writers and speakers/' 

4 



74 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. ILT. 

Error. Mixed Voices of Verbs. Many persons take certain 
expressions showing present time, to mean past time, and, then, en- 
deavor to correct this* perversion by introducing a second principal 
predicate ; thus — 

10. Active Voice. Present time. The man is building the 
house. 

Passive Voice. The house is builds [is built] by the man. 
Past Time. 

11. Active Voice. The man was building the house. 

Passive Voice. The house was builded [was built] by the 
man. 

In ex. 10, Present time is shown by the auxiliary, is ; in ex. 11, 
Past Time is shown by the use of the auxiliary was, jet, plain as 
this distinction is, many mistake is builded or built for the past 
time was builded or built, and introduce the predicate, being ; thus: 

" The house was being builds or built ;" but, as we have seen 
above, a principal pred. ending in ing, denotes a subject actor, and 
a prin. pred. not ending in ing (ed) shows a subject receiver, which 
is an absurdity, because a subject cannot at the same time name an 
actor and the receiver of an action. 

Ellipsis or Omission. 
15. Predicates may be omitted by the narrator and 
understood by the narratee,jtfrs£, in answers to questions, 
and second, when the same predicate occurs, in two, or 
more clauses of the same sentence. 

1. Answers. Who watches here? Ans. John. What drives 
the steamboat? Ans. Steam. Steam drives the steamboat. 

Rule. When objects occur, express the first affirmer, 

and understand the second ; when no object occurs, under- 

stand the first affirmer, and express the second. 

2. Gamesters never live long, and racers never live long. 
Contracted Form. — Gamesters and racers never live long. 

3. We were exposed by night, and we were exposed by day, 
until the boats came to our rescue. 

Contracted Form. — We were exposed night and day, until the 
boats came to our rescue. (Because objects occur, we express the 
first, and understand the second affirmer.) 

4. Anna gave gold, Sarah gave silver, Thomas gave food, and 
James gave clothing. 

5. The book is taught too much, and the subject too little. 
Analysis. The book is taught too much, and the subject too 

little, is a contracted sentence. Its uncontracted, or expanded form 
is, The book is taught too much by the Teacher, and the subject is 
taught too little by the Teacher. 



SYNTAX OF PREDICATES. 75 

6. The earth and the sky and the sea are ever changing. 

7. The monuments of past ages and the memorials of individ- 
ual greatness are before you. 

Sy?Uax of Predicates. 

Rule. I. In the English, a Predicate, which is not 
emphatic, must follow its subject. 

Rule II. In the English a Word Predicate which is 

not emphatic, must precede its subject / but, if a Phrase 

Predicate be emphatic, one of its auxiliaries must precede 

its subject. 

Exception. — In a poetic narration, the Predicate may be trans- 
posed. 

1. Declarative or Historic. " We live in thoughts, not years ; 
in feelings, not figures on a dial/' 

2. Interrogative. Lives there a man with soul so dead ? 

3. Transposed Pred. My right there is none to dispute. No 
one is there to dispute my right. 

4. Whom ye have taken and with wicked hands have crucified 
and slain, Him declare I unto you. 

Logical and Rhetorical Analyses of Predicates. 

1. The rain/<2^ heavily last night. 

Special Analysis. Logically,/^ is the action or second pri- 
mary idea; rhetorically , fell is the predicate of the subject, rain. 
Fell is a predicate or affirmer ; because, it names an action, and is 
used to declare or tell something concerning the subject, rain. It 
is a Word Predicate or a Word Affirmer ; because, it names the 
whole of the action. 

2. Does the fire consume the fuel ? The fire does consume the 
fuel. Is the fuel consumed by the fire ? The fuel is consumed by 
the fire. 

Special Analysis. Logically, does consume is the action or sec- 
ond primary idea; rhetorically, does consume is used as ike predi- 
cate or affirmer of the subject, Jire ; because it names an action 
or second primary idea, and in one case, it asks concerning the 
subject, fire, and in the other, it declares concerning the subject, 
fire. It is a Phrase Predicate ; because, it names a group of ideas. 

In like manner, analyze is consumed, as the Predicate or Afliriner 
of the subject,/^. 



76 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. in. 

Errors in the Use of Predicates. 

1. {Error) " I have often met with specimens of this kind." 
Corrected. I have often found specimens of this kind. 

2. {Er). The boys must try and learn their lessons. 
Cor. The boys must try to learn their lessons. 

3. {Er.). I have got to go to town. 
Cor. I have to go to town. 

4. {Er.). I have work to do. I have nothing to do. 

Cor. 1 have work to be done. I have nothing to be done. 

5. {Er.). I came to see if I could not borrow your hoe. 
Cor. I came to see if I can borrow your hoe. 

6. {Er.). I do not think that I can lend my hoe. 
Cor. I think that I cannot lend my hoe. 

Note. The student may now begin with the first example un- 
der Subjects, and give the Rhetorical Analyses of each sentence, 
and the Special Analysis of its Subject and of its Predicates or 
Amrmers. 

Suggestion? A student, who has become familiar with Predi- 
cates or Afhrmers, may read the article on Verbs, in Chap. IV., be- 
fore commencing Direct Objects, in order that he may observe tht 
relations between Predicates or Amrmers and Verbs. 



RELATIONS OF FIRST OR DIRECT OBJECTS. 77 

III. FIRST OR DIRECT OBJECTS. 
Outline. The Science of first or Direct Objects in- 
cludes ; first, the Definitions / second, the Relations / 
third, the Selections ; fourth, the Ellipsis or Omission / 
and fifth, Syntax of First or Direct Objects. 

Definitions. 
1 . A First or Direct Object is a Word, a Phrase, 
or a Clause, naming the third primary ideal, (I., Gr.,T.,) 
and is used in a sentence actively constructed. 

Lit. Def. The word, object, means that which has been placed 
before or opposite [us]. 

Anal. Object, t, ; jec, has been put, placed ; ob, opposite, 

before. (See Subject.) 

Lit. Def. The word, direct, signifies, that which is straight 
through or across, [from a to b.] (See Indirect Objects.) 

Anal. Direct, t, ; rec, straight, right; di=dia, through, 

across. 

1. Word, D. Obj. Can man number the stars P Man cannot 
number the stars. 2, F S T. 

In ex., 1, stars is a First or Direct Object of the predicate, can 
number. Stars is a direct object ; because, it names the third pri- 
mary idea, and is used in a sentence, actively constructed, to limit 
the meaning of the predicate, to what is done. 

2. Phrase D. Obj. The soldiers sang (" The Battle Cry of 
Freedom.")? 3 FST. 

The element, The Battle Cry of Freedom, is a Phrase Direct 
Object ; because, it names a group used as a receiver, and is used, 
etc. 

3. Clause D. Obj. The visitors urged the (girls to sing a 
song.) 3 Cl 

Girls to sing a song is a Clause Direct Ob}, of the predicate 
urged ; because it names a receiver, and is used in a sentence ac- 
tively constructed to limit the meaning of the predicate. 

Relations of First or Direct Objects. 
2. The Relations of Direct object words and phrases 
to their predicates are shown by meaning and by posi- 
tion ; the Relations of Clause and Direct objects are 
shown by the Form of the Clause, by the inceptive rela- 
tor that, and by the Quotation. 



78 



CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. Ill, 



1. Meaning. The songs* she used to sing, she ne'er will sing 
again. 

She ne'er will sing again the songs* which [songs 3 ] she used to 



In ex., 1, the relation of the D. Obj. songs, to the pred. sing, 
will sing, is shown logically, or by its meaning only. 

2. Position. Asa sees Anna 3 . Anna sees Asa 3 . 

P3 

3. Meaning. The "glorious old banner" shouted the 
B >ldiers. 

p 3 

4. Position. The soldiers shouted " the glorious old banner." 

CI 3 

5. By Form of Gl. The lady desired (the girl to read the story.) 
In the CI. 1st Obj., the girl to read the story, the relation of the 

pred., read, to its subject, girl, is shown by the relator, to. This 
Form of the clause, and its Position shows that the clause itself 
is the First Obj. of the pred., desired. 

6. By the inceptive, that. The lady desires that (the girl sings 

the song.) 

The relation of the D. Obj., the girl sings the song, is shown by 
the inceptive relator, that, to the predicate, desires. 

7. By Quotation. Nathan said unto David, " Thou art the 
Cl. 3 

man." 

Selection of Direct Objects. 

3. According to. definition, the Direct Object must 
name the third primary idea or receiver ; hence, we have 
the following ; — 

Rule. Take the name of the receiver for the direct 

object of a predicate in the active voice. 

1. Sebastian Cabot first discovered the eastern coast 3 of North 
America. 







TABLE. 








Subject. 


Predicate. 


D. Object. 


Relator. 


Ind. Obj. 


AcVy Cons" d. 
AcVy Cons' d. 
Pass'y Cons" d. 


Ex'ror Act'r 

Actor. 

Receiver. 


Active V. 
Active V. 
Passive V. 


Receiver. 


Relation. 
Relation. 
Relation. 


Sub. I. 
Sub. I. 
Ac't. or S. I. 



ELLIPSIS OF DIRECT OBJECTS. 79 

In this Table, we see, first, that sentences expressing thoughts 
of two parts, and, also, sentences passively constructed, cannot have 
Direct Objects ; and second, that the name of a receiver must be 
used either as a Subject,, or as a Direct Object. 

Errors. Examples frequently occur, in which a sentence ap- 
pears to have two, or more First Objects, when, in reality, one of 
these is a First Object, and may always be known by the fact, that 
it names the receiver of the action ; while the other is a Second 
Object, whose relator is understood. (See Relators, Second Objects.) 

2. William sent a book 3 to Jane. William sent [to] Jane a 
book. Wiiliam sent Jane a book. 

In this example, book is the first object ; because, it names the 
receiver of the action, sent, and is used in a sentence actively con- 
structed to limit, etc., while Jane names an idea subordinate to the 
action, sent. Book receives the action, sent ; while, Jane receives 
the book, the thing which is sent. 

If the sentence be passively constructed, the difference between 
these objects becomes more apparent. For, if book be used as the 
subject, our sentence is passively constructed, and correctly. But, 
if Jane be used as the subject, the expression is incorrect. (See 
Selection of Subjects.) Thus : 

3. A book was sent to Jane by William. 

4. Incorrect. Jane was sent a book by William. 

Ellipsis of Direct Objects. 

Direct objects may be omitted by the narrator and un- 
derstood by the narratee ; first, in declarative statements 
and in answers ; second, when the same Direct Object 
occurs in two, or more claues of the same sentence. 

Rule. Generally, in independent clauses, understand 
the former Direct Object, and express the latter / but, in 
dependent clauses, express the former Direct Object, and 
understand the latter. 

1. All animals eat. F S t. All animals eat food. F S T.. 
It is plain that, if animals eat, they must eat something. 

2. Ye shall sow in peace. X Y z. 

3. Independent. Henry makes [the books] and Joseph sells 
the books. FST + FST. 

4 4. Dependent. Joseph sells the books, which [books] Henry 

makes, x y — ; — 

z (+) x y z 



80 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. m. 

5. Farmers raise and millers grind the grain. 

Note. Instead of contracting these sentences, we often put a 
personator in the place of the second word, to make a pleasing va- 
riation of sounds. 

6. Farmers raise the grain, and millers grind it. 

7. Contracted. Prudence heaps up, and prodigality scatters 
riches. 

Analysis ; Prudence heaps up, and prodigality scatters riches, 
is a contracted sentence. Its expanded, or uncontracted form is,^ 
Prudence heaps up riches, and prodigality scatters riches. 

8. Contracted. The latter attacked, and the former plundered 
the town. 

9. The rapid increase of the new colony excited and its mili- 
tary array justified the fears of its Spanish neighbors. 

10. The ladies saw the child, which you mentioned. 

11. The boys saw the man, whom you mentioned, (whom 
man.) 

12. The boys sing with the girls, and the girls sing songs 

with the boys. 

13. Compound Contractions. The boys and the girls sing songs 
together. 

In ex., 13, the predicate and its direct object are omitted from 
the first clause, while the relators and second objects, with the girls, 
with the boys, are contracted into the adjunct, together. 

14. Men cut wood with saws, and men cut wood with axes. 
Comp. Cont'n. Men cut wood with saws and with axes. 

Syntax of Direct Objects. 
Rule. A first noun must follow its predicate / but 
when a first noun is emphatic^ it may be transposed. 

1. O Miser ! wilt thou give gold 3 ? 

2. Transposed. Gold 3 wilt thou give, O Miser ! 

3. While man exclaims " See all things for my use I* 1 
" See man for mine," exclaims the pampered goose. 

The Logical and Rhetorical Analyses of First or 
Direct Objects. 

1. Can man number the stars? Man cannot number the stars. 

General Analysis. Logically, can man, etc., is a simple thought 

of three parts, F S T. Rhetorically, can man, etc., is a sentence, 



ERRORS IN THE USE OF DIRECT OBJECTS. 81 

because, etc. It is actively constructed ; because, etc. Its sub- 
ject is man; its affirmer is can number; its first object is the 
word, stars. 

Special Analysis. Stars is the receiver or third primary idea 
of the thought. It is used as the first object of the predicate, can 
number ; because, it names the receiver or third primary idea, and 
is used in a sentence 'actively constructed. It is a Word First 
Object. 

2. The men shouted for their battle-cry, " the glorious old 
ban?ier." 

Special Analysis. Logically, the glorious old banner, is a de- 
pendent group of ideas, used as the receiver of the action shouted; 
rhetorically, it is a phrase used as the first object of the predicate, 
shouted. It is a Phrase First Object. 

Errors in the Use of Direct Objects. 

1. Mr. Adams presented a library 3 to the Theological Society 5 . 
Error. " Mr. Adams presented the Theological Society with a 

library." 

To whom did Mr. Adams present the Theological Society with 
a library ? 

2. The mother wished them to come. 
Error. The mother wished for them to come. 

Under relations of Direct Objects, we showed that the relation 
of a word, or phrase D. Obj . to its predicate, must be shown by its 
meaning, or by its position ; hence, a relator must not be used to 
show the relation of a D. Obj. to its predicate. (See Indirect Ob- 
jects.) 

3. The sky is not too bright for [the sky] elevating the human 
heart. 

Error. " The sky is not too bright for elevating of the human 
heart." 

Suggestion. When the student has become familiar with Di- 
rect Objects, he may review the examples under Subjects, Predi- 
cates and Direct Objects. He should also be required to construct 
sentences having these elements, giving the different Forms and 
Voices of the Predicate as given in the Conjugation of the Verb. % 
Let these Exercises be both oral and written. 



82 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. HI. 



IV. Relators. 

Outline. The Science of Relators includes ; first, the 
Definitions; second, the Relations; third, the Selection; 
fourth, the Ellipsis or Omission, and fifth, the Syntax of 
Relators. 

Definitions. 

1. A Relator is a word naming an idea of relation, and 
used to show the relation of its subsequent to an antecedent term. 
(See Phrases, Relators.) 

1. In 4, the morning sow thy seed. Sow thy seed in 4 the 
morning. X Y Z 

Rhetorically, in, is a Relator, showing the relation of its subse- 
quent, morning, to its antecedent, sow. In is a Relator ; because, it 
names an idea of relation and is used to show the relation of a sub- 
sequent to its antecedent term. 

2. The top* of the hill is the hill's top or the hill-topt, 
FS 

The relator, of, relates its subsequent, Mil, to its antecedent, top. 
Of is a Relator ; because, etc. 

3. The officer ordered the men to 4, bring their guns. 

The relator, to, relates its subsequent, bring, to its antecedent, 
men. 

Relations shown by Relators. 

2. In the English Language, Relators show three kinds 
of Relations ; namely — 

SUBSEQUENT ANTECEDENT 

TERMS. TERMS. 

First ; the relation of a second object to its' predicate. 
Second ; the relation of an adjunct to its principal. 
Third ; the relation of a predicate to its subject. 



EELATORS. 83 

Note I. In all languages, Relators show the relations of second 
objects to their predicates. In the Greek and in the Latin, this is 
their only use. In the French, they are used to show the relation 
of second objects to their predicates, and of adjuncts to their prin- 
cipal words. 

1. Second Obj. to Fred. "Wealth is sought by* men. 5 T S F 

The Relator, by, shows the relation of the second obj., men, to the 
predicate, is sought. 

2. Wonders have been done by 4 "I will try it." 

T S F=T S * f s t 

In ex., 2, the Relator, by, relates the cl. I. Obj., I will try it, to 
the predicate, have been done. 

3. Adjunct to its Prin. The den of 4, a thief is a thief's den. 
The Relator, of, relates the adjunct, thief, to its principal, den. 

4. The father of 4 the prodigal son was full of 4 joy. 
In ex., 4, of, relates the adjunct, joy, to the adjunct, full. 

5. I have no doubt 3 of 4 the boy's losing his book. 

In ex., 5, of relates the cl., the boy's losing his book, to D. Obj., 
doubt. 

Note II. The word, of, is probably the only one which may be 
used to name the relation of an adjunct to its principal, which is a 
non-predicate. Other words may appear to be so used, while, in 
reality, they are not. Thus ; — 

6. The man, in the moon, is all moonshine. 

In this example, in* appears to show the relation of moon to man ; 
but, in reality, it is the result of a contraction of the sentence, the 
man, who lives in the moon, etc. 

7. Predicate to its Subject. The couple asked the priest 1 
to 4 perform 2 the marriage service. 

In ex., 7, the Relator, to, relates the predicate, perform, to the 
subject, priest. 

8. For men to 4 run at such times is cowardly. It was 
cowardly for the men 4 to run. 

In ex., 8, to relates the predicate, run, to its subject, men. 

Note III. To is the only relator which is used to relate a predi- 
cate to its own subject. 



84 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. in. 



Selection of Eelators. 

3. According to definition, a Kelator must name an idea 
of relation, and relate a subsequent to an antecedent term. 
Hence, we have the following ; — 

Ktjle. Take the name of the relation for the Relator, ana 
place it before its subsequent term. 

1. In the beginning, the earth was without form. 

2. The horse ran along the road, through the woods, into 
the field. 

Note I. The word, by, should be used to name the relation of a 
second object actor to its predicate. The use of the word, with, to 
name this relation is not proper. In some figurative expressions, 
by should be substituted for with. (See Chap. V., Fig. Lang., Per- 
sonification.) 

3. The horse killed the man. The engine killed the man. 
The man was killed by the horse. The man was killed by 
the engine. 

In these examples, if with be substituted for by, we shall have ; — ■ 
The man was killed with the horse ; that is, the man and the 

horse were both killed together, or by the same cause. 

The man was killed with the engine ; which is nonsense ; unless, 

something killed both the man and the engine. 

4. The enemy slew the people with the sword. The 
people were slain with the sword by the enemy. 

By a rhetorical figure, called Personification, the means or instru- 
ment with which an act is done is sometimes represented as the 
actor or doer. Thus, if the instrument, sword, be represented as the 
actor, enemy, we would substitute by for with ; as, the people were 
slain by the sword. In such cases, the name of the actor should 
not be expressed. 

Ellipsis or Omission of Relators. 

4. A Kelator may be omitted by the narrator and un- 
derstood by the narratee ; first, when it relates a second 
object, and is used in a familiar expression ; second, when 
it relates a transposed second object ; third, when, after cer- 



BELAT0KS. 85 

tain predicates, it relates a predicate to its own subject ; 
fourth, when it is contracted with its object. 

1. Familiar expression. The boy went home. The boy 
went [to, or toward] home. My father is [at] home to-day. 

2. Transposed Sec. Obj. The teacher taught Grammar 
to 4 his pupils. The teacher taught his pupils Grammar. 

Note I. The Relator is sometimes omitted, when its subsequent 
term is placed before the first object. (This omission has led to the 
error noticed under Selection of first objects.) 

3. Asa paid — William the money. Asa paid the money 
to William. 

4. Certain Pred. We saw the horses — 4 run. The lady 
heard the birds — 4 sing. 

Note II. After certain predicates, such as, bid, feel, hear, see, let, 
etc., the Relator, to, may be understood. 

5. He bade me — 4 feel another's woe. 

6. I felt the ground — 4 shake under me. 

7. Con'd with its Obj. Henry came in haste. Henry 
came hastily. The letter was received in due time. The 
letter was duly received. 

8. The children ate eagerly. The children ate in an 
eager manner. 

9. Heaven from above smiles on the scene beneath. 

That is, Heaven from [the sky] above [us] smiles on the scene 
beneath [it]. 

Syntax of Relators. 

Rule. A Relator must precede its subsequent term ; hence, 
when the subsequent term is transposed, the relator must be 
transposed with it. 

1. Heaven hides the book of fate /rora 4 all creatures. 

2. Heaven hides from* all creatures the book of fate. 

3. Heaven from* all creatures hides the book of fate. 

4. From* all creatures, heaven hides the book of fate. 

5. To whom did you give the book ? 
Incorrect. Whom did you give the book, to f 4 

6. About whom are you talking ? 
Common Error. Whom are you talking about . ?4 



86 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. IH. 



Errors in the use of Relators. 

1. He was shot from [by] carelessly handling his own 
pistol. 

2. Much time is taken in writing of [omit] these exer- 
cises. 

3. The place is over beyond Jordan. The place is be- 
yond Jordan. 

4. The students presented their teacher with a new book. 
(Corrected.) The students presented a new book to the 
teacher. The students presented the teacher a new book, 

5. The thief stole the money of [from] James. 

6. a Specimens of this kind are often met with" 
Corrected. Specimens of this kind are often found. (See Selec- 
tions of Predicates.) 

7. Charles was applied to. 

Corrected. Somebody applied to Charles. (See Selection of Sub- 
jects.) 

8. "The second person is the person spoken to." The 
third person is the person spoken of." (See Errors in the 
Selection of Subjects; also Person of Nouns, Chap. IV.) 

9. " This subject has been spoken of" [mentioned]. 

Suggestion. Students who have become familiar with Relators, 
may read Prepositions (Grammar, Chap. IV.), before studying Sec- 
ond or Indirect Objects. 



SECONTD OR INDIRECT OBJECTS. 87 



V. Second or Indirect Objects. 

Outline. The Science of Second or Indirect Objects in- 
cludes; first, the Definitions ; second, the Relations ; third, 
the Selection ; fourth, the Ellipsis or Omission, and fifth, 
the Syntax of Second or Indirect Objects. 

Definitions. 

1 . A Second or Indirect Object is a Word, a Phrase, or 

a Clause naming the actor, or some ideal, (Idea, Group, 

Thought}) subordinate to the action; and used to limit the 

predicate to which its relation is shown by a relator. 

Lit. Def. The word, indirect, signifies not straight through or 
across. 
Anal. Indirect, t, — ; direc, = diarec (see direct) ; in not. 

1. Word. Can the stars be numbered by man ? 5 TSF. 
The stars cannot be numbered by man. 5 TSF. 

In ex., 1, man is a Second Object actor of the predicate, be num- 
bered, to which its relation is shown by the relator, by. 

Man is a Second Object ; because, it names a first primary idea or 
actor and is used to limit its predicate as to the cause by which the 
action is done. 

2. Men dig for gold 5 on the mountains 5 cold. X T Z. 
The Second Object, gold, names the purpose, or cause on account 

of which men dig- ; the Second Object, mountains, limits the predi- 
cate as to the 'place, where men dig. 

3. Phrase. The President issued a proclamation for 

Thanksgiving-Day? 5 

Thanksgiving-Day is a Phrase Indirect Object limiting the predi- 
cate, issued, as to cause on account of which. 

4. Clause lnd. Obj. Many drooping hearts have been 
cheered by " Trust ye in me." C1 5 T S F=T S/- s 

Relations of Second Objects to Predicates. 
2>. The Relations of Second or Indirect Objects to their 
predicates are always named by relators. A Second Ob- 



88 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. HI. 

ject limits its predicate as to its cause by ivhich, to its cause on 
account of which, to its quantity, quality, manner, means or 
instrument, time, place, relation, order, etc. 

1. Actor or cause by which. A fort was built in great 
haste by the men. 5 

Special Analysis. Rhetorically, men is a second object, naming the 
*ause or actor by which the action was produced. 

2. Cause on account of which. Students study for the ac- 
quisition 5 of knowledge. 

3. Respect wherein. The peach is delicious in its flavor* 
and beautiful in its color. 5 

4. Quantity. The wheat crop of this year exceeds that of 
last year by many thousand bushels 5 

5. Manner. Be steady in your habits 5 firm in your pur- 
poses, 5 and dignified in your deportment. 5 

6. Means or instrument. Men buy the materials with 
money, 5 and construct buildings with materials 5 and with 
tools. 5 

7. Time, when. The United States were declared inde- 
pendent of Great Britain on the 4th day 5 of July, in the 
year 5 1776. 5 

8. Time, hoiv long. The Nation suffered many long years. 5 
The crop ripened in five months. 5 

9. Place. The man came from the country 5 to the city 5 
this morning. Conies have holes under rocks, 5 on the moun- 
tain sides. 5 

Note I. The relator of a Second Object may be understood. See 
Ellipsis of Kelators. 

10. The boy went home. The boy went [to, or toward] 
home. The men gave — their horses the lash. Jacob made 
— Joseph a coat of many colors. 

Selection of Second or Indirect Objects. 

3. According to its definition, a Second Object must 
name either the first primary idea or actor, or some ideal 
subordinate to the second primary, hence we have the fol- 
lowing ; — 

Eule. In a sentence actively constructed, use the narr * of 



SECOND OR INDIRECT OBJECTS. 



39 



an ideal, subordinate to the action, for a Second Object ; but, 
in a sentence passively constructed, use the name of the actor, 
or of an ideal subordinate to the action. 



TABLE. 



Act'y Cons'd. 
Act'y Cons'd. 
Pass'y Cons'd. 



Subject. 
Actor. 
Actor. 
Receiver. 

i 


Pred'e. 
W. or P. 
W. or P. 
Phrase. 


D. Obj. 
Rec'r. 


ReTr. 
Relation. 
Relation. 
Relation. 



Sab. Ideal. 
Sub. Ideal. 
Actor or 
Sub. Ideal. 



Note I. In the construction of a sentence, the name of the actor 
or first primary idea may be used as the subject, and it may be 
used as the Second Object, and it must be used in one or the other 
of these two offices, if used at all. 

When the name of the actor is the subject, the sentence is actively 
constructed ; but, when the name of the actor is the Second Object, 
the sentence is passively constructed. 

When used as a subject, the name of the actor, through the idea 
which it names, limits our idea of the action; and, as a subject, 
controls the construction of the sentence. When used as a Second 
Object, it loses its controlling influence as a subject, and retains its 
limiting influence only. 

1. The houses are built by the men, and the food is 
prepared by the ivomen, that comfortable homes may be 
enjoyed by the children. 

Note II. Sometimes by a figure of speech called Personification, 
the actions and qualities of an actor or first primary idea are attri- 
buted to a subordinate idea. In these instances, the name of the 
subordinate is used as if it were the name of the actor, while the 
name of the actor is not expressd. 

2. The enemy slew the people with the sword. The 
people were slain with the sword by the enemy. 

If the action of the actor, enemy, be attributed to the instrument, 
sword, with which the action was done, the word, sword, must be 
used instead of the word, enemy, and we have, for the passive ex- 
. pression of this thought ; — 

3. The people were slain by the sword. 

4. The farmer, with a mowing machine, was cutting the 
grass. The grass was cut by the farmer with his mowing 
machine. The grass was cut by the mowing machine. 



90 CONSTRUCTIVE EHETOEIC. [CHAP. III. 

Ellipsis or Omission of Sec. or Ind. Obj. 

4. Second or Indirect Objects may be omitted by the 
narrator and may be understood by the narratee ; first, 
Second Object (actors) ; second, when the same Second 
Object occurs in two, or more clauses of the same sentence. 

Rule. Generally understand the former, and express the 
latter Second Object. 

1. Sec. Obj. Act'r. The land was ploughed — . Z Yx, or 
Z Y — . x understood. The earth was created — . 

2. In two Clauses. Steam-ships travel over the sea and 
sailing vessels sail over the sea. 

Contracted Form. Steam-ships travel and sailing vessels sail 
over the sea. 

3. We have just come [from the town] and you are just 
going to the town. 

4. I saw gold and James saw copper in that place. 

5. Charles reads and Jane sings delightfully. 

Its expanded, or uncontracted form is — Charles reads delight- 
fully, and Jane sings delightfully ; or, Charles reads in a delightful 
manner, and Jane sings in a delightful manner. 

Note I. Second Objects with their adjuncts and relators are fre- 
quently contracted into a single word ; as, — 

6. Henry came in haste. Henry came hastily. The letter 
was received in due time. The letter was duly received. 

7. The boys behaved in a very rude manner. The boys 
behaved very rudely. The teacher spoke in a pleasant way. 
The teacher spoke pleasantly. 

8. The wall is three feet in its height. The wall is, in its 
height, three feet. In its height, the wall is three feet. The 
wall is three feet high. 

Syntax of Second or Indirect Objects. 

Rule. A Second Object noun must follow a first object noun, 
if there be one ; but, when emphatic, a Second Object noun and 
its relator may be transposed. 



SECOND OR INDIRECT OBJECTS. 91 

1. George Stephenson invented the railway locomotive 
engine about the year 1830. The railway locomotive en- 
gine was invented by George Stephenson about the year 1830. 

2. Mr. Jones told about Alexis shooting buffaloes. 01 ' 1 

3. Transposed Sec. Obj. To study 5 , now our steps we turn. 
Now we to study, 5 turn our steps. Now we turn, to study, 5 
our steps. Now we turn our steps to study. 5 

4. Teachers teach Rhetorical Structures to their stu- 
dents. Teachers teach — their students Rhetorical Struc- 
tures. 

Note I. The transposition of the Second to precede the First Ob- 
ject, and the omission of its relator, have led some Grammarians to 
suppose that these Second Objects have thus become First Objects ; 
hence, the following erroneous statement, — 

u Verbs of teaching, giving, etc., govern two Objectives, the one 
of a person the other of a thing." 

Did the author of this statement intend that the term, person, 
should include the term, horses, in the following example ? — 

5. The drivers gave [to] their horses the lash. The dri- 
vers gave the lash to their hoi^ses. 

Logical and Rhetorical Analyses of Sec. or Ind. Objects. 

1. At a given signal 5 , the forces of the enemy were led 
from their camp into the plain by their general. T S F. 

General Analysis. Logically, At a given signal, etc., is a Simple 
Thought of three parts, T S F. 

Rhetorically, at a given signal, etc., is a sentence, passively con- 
structed. Its principal words are, forces, were led. Its relators are, 
at, of, f ram, into, by. Its second objects are signal, camp, plain, gen- 
eral. 

Special Analysis. Signal, logically, is an idea subordinate to the 
action, were led ; rhetorically, signal is a second object of the predi- 
cate, were led, to which its relation is shown by the relator, at. It 
is a second object, because it names an idea subordinate to the action, 
and its relation to the predicate is shown by a relator. 

In like manner, analyze camp, plain. 

General is the actor or first primary, and is used as the second ob- 
ject (actor) of the predicate, were led. By shows its relation to the 
predicate, were led. It is a second object, because it names the actor 
or first primary idea, and is used, etc. 

2. In the same year, Hudson's ship, the Half-Moon, was 
also sent to the Hudson River on a like errand by the Com- 
pany 



92 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. HI. 

Special Analysis. Year, rhetorically, is a second object, showing 
the time of the action was sent ; in shows its relation. It is a sec- 
cond object, because, etc. 

River is a second object, showing the place whither of the action, 
was sent. Its relation is shown by to. 

Errand is a second object, showing the cause on account of which 
the action was done. It is the subsequent term of the relator, on. 

Company is a second object (actor), showing the cause by which the 
action was done. Its relator is by. 

3. Mr. Adams presented a watch with its chain to his 
son. 

Error. Mr. Adams presented the Theological Society with a 
library. [To whom did he present them ?] 

In this ex., the error consists in taking the name of the receiver, 
library, of the action, presented, as an Indirect Object related to its 
predicate by, with, and taking the name of an idea subordinate to 
the predicate, presented, as a Direct Obj. 

Corrected. Mr. Adams presented a library to the Theological 
Society. 

Suggestion. Students, who have become familiar with Second 
or Indirect Objects, may read Second Object Nouns, the Case of 
Second Object Clause Nouns and the Case of its subject before com- 
mencing Adjuncts. 



ADJUNCTS. 93 



VI. Adjuncts. 

Outline. The Science of Adjuncts includes ; first, the 
Definitions ; second, the Relations ; third, the Selection ; 
fourth, Ellipsis or Omission, and fifth, the Syntax of Ad- 
juncts. 

Definitions. 

1. An Adjunct is a Word, a Phrase, or a Clause' naming 
a subordinate ideal (Idea, Group, Thought), and is used to 
limit or to lessen the meaning of a subject, of a predicate, of an 
object, or of another adjunct ; and, sometimes, to relate its 
principal to the same element in another clause. 

Lit. Def. The word, adjunct* means that which has been joined to 
[something]. 

Anal. Adjunct, t — ; junc, is, or has been joined, yoked, ad, to 
[something], 

1. Adjuncts of Sub. The 6 lofty 6 summit of the 6 moun- 
tain 6 was visible. 6 The 6 mountain's 6 lofty 6 summit was visi- 
ble. 6 

In ex., 1, the, lofty, mountain, visible, mountain's, are Adjuncts of 
the subject, summit. They are Adjuncts ; because, they name ideas 
subordinate to the principal idea, summit ; and are used to limit or 
to lessen the meaning of the subject, summit. 

2. Ad. of CI. Subj. For one to eat is good, 6 and for one 
to drink is good 6 and comely. 6 For one to eat and to drink 
is good 6 and comely. 6 

In ex., 2, the elements, good, comely, are adjuncts of the clause 
subjects, for one to eat, for one to drink. 

3. Ad. of Pred. The boat came near 6 [to J the dock and 
was tied fast 6 to a post. 

Near is an Adjunct of the predicate, came. Fast is an Adjunct 
of was tied. 

* Suggestions for an Objective Oral Lesson in Adjuncts, together with exer« 
cises, etc., may be found in Chap. III. of the First Course, which see. 



94 COKSTEUOTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. m. 

Note I. The difference, between an Adjunct of a Predicate and 
an Object of a Predicate, is this, — 

An Adjunct names a subordinate idea, and is related to its pre- 
dicate by meaning, by position , or by both. 

A Direct Object naihes the third primary idea, and is related to 
the predicate by meaning and by position. 

An Indirect Object names a first primary, or a subordinate idea 
and is related to its predicate by a relator. 

4. Ad. of D. Obj. The traveller saw the 6 lofty 6 summit 
of the mountain. 6 The traveller saw the 6 mountain's 6 lofty 6 
summit. 

5. Ad. of Phrase D. Obj. The lady sang the 6 dear 6 old 6 
6 ' Home, sweet Home." 

6. Ad. of Ind. Obj. The boys ran in eager 6 haste. Men 
gather crops in harvest 6 time. 

7. Ad. of Clause of Ind. Obj. The air was filled with the 6 
jubilant, 6 " We will have a holiday/' by the exulting 6 boys. 

8. Ad. of Adjunct. The very 6 attentive guide very 6 soon 
brought the strangers to the much 6 desired Inn. 

9. To ret. its prim, to same elm't in another cl. This [tree] 
is the tree, which 6 [tree] bears pippins. 

In this ex., which is an adjunct of the subject, tree, in the cl., 
which tree bears pippins, and also shows that its subsequent term, 
tree, is the same in meaning, as its antecedent, tree, in the clause, 
this is the tree. 

2. A Kelattve Adjunct is an Adjunct which relates its 
principal as its subsequent to the same element in another 
clause as its antecedent ; and thus shows that its own clause is 
an adjunct of its antecedent term. 

1. Do you see that tree at which 6 [tree] I am pointing. 
Which is a Relative adjunct showing that its subsequent, tree, is 

logically the same as its antecedent, tree, in the clause, Do you see 
that tree ; and, also, shows that the clause, at tohich [tree] / am 
pointing, is a Belative adjunct clause of tree, its antecedent term. 

2. The lady who 6 [lady] sings so well, will be here this 

evening. 

The Relative adjunct, who, shows that the whole clause, who 
[lady] sings so well, is a Belative adjunct clause of its antecedent, 



Note I. A word formed by contracting a relator with its second 
object is sometimes called an Adjunct of its predicate. For con- 
venience this may be done ; but it is not true in fact ; thus — 



ADJUNCTS. 95 

3. The men came in 4 haste. 5 The men came hastily. 6 
For convenience, hastily, may be described as an Adjunct, related 
by meaning, or by position, to tbe predicate, came ; but, if accuracy 
be required, hastily, must be described as a second object and its 
relator, contracted from in haste, etc. 

Relations of Adjuncts to their Principals. 

3, The relations of Word and Phrase Adjuncts to their 
Principal elements may be shown ; Logically or by meaning 
only, and Rhetorically ; first, by position only ; second, by 
a Relator ; third, fyy an apostrophe ['] or by a hyphen [-]. 
Relations of CI. Ad. to their principal elements are shown 
by a Relator, or by a Relative Adjunct. 

1. Meaning only. Oh, maiden fair, 6 where art thou going? 

2. Position only. What is the difference between a horse 6 
chestnut and a chestnut 6 horse? 

3. By a Relator. The parents of these children 6 are very 
fond of wealth. 6 

The ad., children, is related by tlie relator, of, to the subject, 
parents. The ad., wealth, is related to the ad., fond, by the relator, 
of. 

4. CI. Ad. related by of. A person told the story of 4 
Alexis 3 shooting buffaloes. 01 - 6 

Alexis' shooting buffaloes is a Relative CI. Adjunct related to its 
principal, story, by the relator, of. Hence, these Clauses are called 
Relative Clause Adjuncts. 

5. Relative Ad. The ship, which 6 [ship] sailed this morn- 
ing carried the goods that 6 [goods] I sent. 

Rhetorically, which, is an adjunct related by position only to its 
principal, ship, and also shows that the whole clause, which ship 
sailed this morning, is a Relative Adjunct Clause of ship, -in the. 
clause, the ship carried the goods. Rhetorically, that, is a Relative 
Ad. joining goods, the subject of its own cl., to goods, the object of 
the preceding cL, thus showing that the clause, that [goods] I sent, 
is a Rel. Ad. Cl. of goods, in the cl., carried the goods. 

6. Cl. Ad. reVd by Rel. Ad. The men, who 6 [men] came 
to-day, will be here to-morrow. 

7. By an Apostrophe. Ellen's 6 friends are members of the 
Mechanics' 6 Society. 



96 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. HI. 

8. By a Hyphen. The boot 6 -jack was lying on a very- 
careless man's box of fishing 6 -tackle. 

Note I. The Grammatical Relations of Adj uncts are given under 
Adjunct Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs in Chap. IV. 

Selection of Adjuncts. 

4. According to definition an Adjunct must name an 
Ideal subordinate to a primary, or to another subordinate 
idea; hence — 

Rule. Take as Adjuncts the names of Ideals, having subor- 
dinate relations to the ideas named by their principal elements, 
and express their relations by the means shown under the rela- 
tions of Adjuncts. 

1. The very beautiful plumage of the various birds of 
the tropical regions of the earth presents a great variety 
of brilliantly varied colors. 

The is an adjunct, naming a subordinate idea having an inci- 
dental relation to the subject, plumage; very is an Ad. naming a 
subordinate I., having a natural relation to the idea, beautiful; 
beautiful is an Ad., etc. 

2. The winter 6 apples are in the cellar. A pound 6 cake 
is on the table, A cart 6 horse is in the stable. 

Winter is an adjunct naming a subordinate idea having an artifir 
cial relation to its prin. idea, apples. (See Relations of Ideas, 
Chap. I.) 

3. The first building is John's house, the second building 
is the house of John's father. 

Note I. Sometimes a word is used simply to commence an ex- 
pression, with or without any definite logical use. A word so used 
is called an Inceptive Adjunct, and is said to be used Inceptively ; 
that is, to make a beginning. Sometimes, also, a word is used to fill 
out a statement. A word so used is called an Expletive Adjunct, 
and is said to be used Expletively ; that is, to fill up, 

Inceptives and Expletives should be used with great caution, as 
they are seldom necessary, are generally inelegant, and always ob- 
scure the narration. 

4. There is a man here. 
Correct Form. Here is a man. 



ADJUNCTS. 



97 



5. How many acres are there in this field ? 
Correct Form. How many acres are in this field ? 

6. How many trees are there in that lot ? 

Ellipsis or Omission of Adjuncts, 

5, An Adjunct maybe omitted, by the narrator and 
may be understood by the narratee; first, in familiar ex- 
pressions; second, when the same Adjunct occurs in two, 
or more clauses of the same sentence. 

1. Familiar ex. Which of these apples is sweet, the red, 
or the green one ? Ans. The red apple. 

2. Ik two, or more CI. Good farms, good crops, good 
water and good society, are found in the Western country. 
Good farms, crops, water and society are found in the 
Western country. 

3. The knife is worth a dollar. The knife is the worth 
of a dollar. 

Note I. Sometimes, a word, formed by contracting an adjunct of 
a second object and their relator, is described as an adjunct of the 
predicate, 

4. The king received the ambassadors in a gracious 
manner. The king received the ambassadors graciously. 
(See Ellipsis of Second Objects.) 

Syntax of Adjuncts. 

Rule I. Adjuncts, related by meaning only; or by position 
only to Subjects, or to Objects, generally precede their principal. 

1. The all-wise 6 and benevolent 6 Creator has provided 
all 6 these 6 good 6 things. 

First Exception. When several attributes of the first term are 
compared with the same attributes in the second term. 

2. This apple is sweet 6 , mellow 6 , and juicy 6 . 

In this example, the attributes, sweet, mellow, and juicy, are com- 
pared with the same attributes in an indefinite number of apples. 

3. This apple is sweeter 6 , mellower 6 , and more juicy 6 than 
the other 6 apples. 



98 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. in. 

4. This apple is the sweetest 6 , the mellowest 6 ,- and the 
most juicy 6 [apple] of a]l these 6 apples. 

Second Exception. When the Adjunct would interfere with the 
directness, or distinctness of the expression. 

5. Hemy is a true gentleman, quiet in his deportment, 
pleasant in his address, and social in his habits. 

Third Exception. When we would make the Adjunct more 
prominent, or emphatic. 

6. God is a spirit, infinite, eternal, unchangeable, etc. 

Fourth Exception. When the affirmer helps to show the relation 
of the Adjunct to its Subject. 

7. The bolts, having become loose, were made tighter. 

8. The sky looks cold and dreary, while the blast is 
strong and bitter. 

Fifth Exception. In many instances, the Adjunct may precede, or 
it may follow the noun, at the pleasure of the narrator. 

9. This is a large, commodious, and elegant building. 
This building is large, commodious, and elegant. 

Rule II. Generally, an Adjunct of a word predicate must 
follow the predicate, but an Adjunct of a phrase predicate 
must follow the first auxiliary predicate. 

10. Ad. of Word Pred. The letter came duly. 6 We came 
here hastily. 6 

11. Ad. of Phrase Pred. The letter has duly 6 come to 
hand. "We have hastily 6 come here. 

Note I. Rules I. asid II. are general Rules to which there are 
many exceptions, among which are the following ;— 

First Exception. When an Adjunct is emphatic, it is placed at 
the beginning of a sentence ; as, the Adjunct, generally, in the Rule 
given above. 

Second Exception. When the sentence can be made more euphoni- 
ous, the Adjunct may be transposed. 

12. Fortunately, he had already left the room. He had, 
fortunately, already left the room. He had already left the 
room, fortunately. He had fortunately left the room already. 
Alread}' he had fortunately left the room, etc. 

Rule III. An Adjunct which is used as an adjunct of an- 
other Adjunct, must precede its principal element. 



ADJUNCTS. 99 

13. Each student was very eager to win the most honor- 
able position in the class ; hence, all sought it more earn- 
estly than before. 

Rule IV. An Adjunct related by an apostrophe, or by a 
hyphen must precede its principal element. 

14. Ellen's sister's husband's father owns the Merchants' 
Exchange-Hotel. 

Rule V. An Adjunct related by a Relator, or by a Relative 
Adjunct, must follow its principal element closely. 

15. The general of the army 6 led the troops. The gen- 
eral of the king's army 6 led the troops. 

16. The ladies had read the criticism of the picture of 
Church's " Heart of the Andes. " p 6 

17. Many boys have heard the story of Washington's 
cutting his father's cherry tree. 016 

18. Then one Hugo, who 6 was only a serf, began to say 
unto his master. (Error.) Then one Hugo began to say 
unto his master, who 6 was only a serf. 

In the first example, Hugo is the serf ; in the second, the master 
is the serf. 

Exception. Sometimes, for emphasis, or for convenience, the 
Relative Adjunct may precede its antecedent. 

19. To whom, 6 and for what, 6 I divulge the following 
narrative, will appear in the sequel. The person, to whom 
I divulge the following narrative, and the purpose, for 
what, I divulge the following narrative, will appear in the 
sequel. 

20. Whose 6 fan is in his hand, he will thoroughly purge 
his floor. He, whose 6 fan is in his hand, will, etc. 

21. Error. Behold, I have taken upon me to speak unto 
the Lord, who am but dust and ashes. (Corrected.) Behold, 
I, who am but dust and ashes, have taken, etc. 

Logical and Rhetorical Analyses of Adjuncts. 

1. The 6 first 6 well 6 directed 6 effort frequently 6 produces 
the 6 greatest 6 event of a 6 man's 6 life 6 . FST 

Logically, the is a subordinate idea of position, having an in 



100 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. in. 

cidental relation to its principal, effort. Rhetorically, the is used as 
an adjunct, related by position, to the subject, effort. 

Logically, greatest is a subordinate idea of quantity, having a 
natural relation to its principal, event. Rhetorically, greatest is an 
adjunct related by position to the D. Obj., event. 

Logically, man's is a subord. i. of possession, having an artificial 
relation to the adjunct, life. Rhetorically, man's is an adjunct re- 
lated by an apostrophe to its prin., life. 

Logically, life is a subord. idea of possession, having an artificial 
relation to its prin., events. Rhetorically, life is an adjunct, related 
by the relator, of to the T>. Obj., events. 

A man's life may be analyzed as a phrase adjunct, having an ar- 
tificial relation to its prin., event. 

Frequently may be analyzed as a contracted second object ; or, as 
a second object adjunct ; or, as an adjunct in form, and a second 
object in its meaning. Finally, no .difficulty is involved by calling 
contracted second objects, Adjuncts of their predicates. 

2. The old man thought of the home 5 of his childhood. 6 
The old man thought of his childhood's 6 home 5 . 

In this example, home is a second object of the pred , thought, 
while childJwod is an adjunct, because the antecedent, home, is not a 
predicate. 

Errors in the Use of Adjuncts. 

If good or great be used as an Adjunct, its principal must 
be a Subject, an Object, or an Adjunct related by of, or an 
apostropJie. 

Correct. Very many 6 pupils came. 

Error, A good many 6 pupils came. A great many 6 pupils 
came. 

Correct. S3ie behaved very nicely. 

Error. She behaved very nice. 

Correct. This is the better of the two. 

Error. This is the best of the two. 

Correct. The first two girls may stand. 

Error. The two first girls may stand. & 

Correct. Excellent bread. Good potatoes. Delicious 
peaches. Fine clams. This is a disagreeable flavor, an 
offensive odor. Pretty carpet. 

Errors. Splendid bread. Lovely potatoes. Grand, good 
peaches. Exquisite clams. " Jenny Lind clams !" This 
is a horrible flavor, an awful odor. Sweet carpet. 

6. Adjuncts according to the ideas which they name, 



ADJUNCTS. 101 

limit their principal elements as to quantity, quality, manner, 

means or instrument, time, place, relation, etc. 

{In describing tlie following Adjuncts , the student should classify 
tlie idea, and, also, name its relation to its principal.) 

Quantity. 

7. Quantity embraces extension, or size, number, weighty 
ratio, etc. 

1. Two heads are better than one [head]. 

Special Analysis. Two, logically, is a subordinate idea of quantity, 
having a natural relation to its principal, heads ; rhetorically, two 
is used as an adjunct of the subject, heads. 

2. Little waste makes great want. 

3. " Think twice and speak once.'" 

4. a A man is a man for all that" [thing] . 

5. Many things lawful are not [things] expedient. 

Quality. 

8. Quality embraces such properties as color, sound, odor, 
flavor, temperature, form, exercise, etc. 

1. A pleasant sound delights the read}- ear. 

Special Analysis. Pleasant is a subordinate idea of quality, having 
a natural relation to its principal, sound; and is used, in the sen- 
tence, as an aajunct of the subject, sound. 

2. A foolish woman is clamorous. 

3. A bright red color contrasts beautifully with the deep 
green color of the grass. 

Manner. 

9. Manner embraces how, in what way, etc 

1. He assented cheerfully. 

Special Analysis. Cheerfully is a subordinate idea of manner, 
having a natural relation to its principal, assented ; and is used, in 
the sentence, as an adjunct of the affirmer, assented. 

2. The pupils behaved properly. 



102 CONSTEUCTIVE EHETOKIC. [CHAP. HI. 

Time. 

10. Time embraces duration, when, then, etc. 

1. The work was finished seasonably. 

Special Analysis. Seasonably is a subordinate idea of time, having 
a natural relation to its principal, teas finished ; and is used, in the 
sentence as an adjunct of the predicate, was finished. 

2. Formerly a. guide-post had been erected. on this very 
spot. 

3. It was then. It is now. It shall be hereafter. 

Order. 

11. Oedeb embraces succession, rank, degree, etc. 

1. Those who came first, left last. 

Special Analysis. First is a subordinate idea of order, having an 
incidental relation to its principal, came ; and is used, in the sen- 
tence, as an adjunct of the amrrner, came. 

2. The upper town is on the top of the hill* 

3. The lower town is at the foot of the hill. 

Place. 

12. Place embraces locality, position, point, etc. 

1. Here is the spot. There is your hat. 

Special Analysis. Here is a subordinate idea of locality, having 
an incidental relation to its principal, is; and is used, in the sen- 
tence, as an adjunct of the amrrner, is. 

2. This book belongs to that pupiL These books belong 
to those pupils. This book belongs to me. 

Special Analysis. This is a subordinate idea of place, having an 
incidental relation ,to its principal, book; and, is used as an adjunct 
of the subject, book. ^ 

Relation. 

1. Question. Whose book is this ? Answer. This book 
is mine. 
Special Analysis. Whose names a subordinate idea of the relation 



ADJUNCTS. 103 

between its principal, book, and the repetition of the idea, in another 
thought, used as an answer to the question. It is used as an adjunct 
of the subject, book. 

2. Which hat is mine ? This hat is yours. 

3. What [thing] do you wish? I wish my hat. 

4. Where did you go ? I went to town. 

5. When did you return ? I returned this morning. 

6. Which of these roads leads to Boston? This road 
leads to Boston. 

Which is a relative adjunct, whose consequent or subsequent is 
roads. It also refers to its antecedent, road, in the sentence, this 
road leads to Boston. 

7. Here is a haystack. There is a cornfield. 

8. There is a cart-horse before a horse-cart 



104: CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. III. 



VII. Personators. 

Outline. The Science of the Personator includes; first, 
the Definitions ; second, the Relations ; third, the Selection ; 
fourth, the Ellipsis or Omission, and fifth, the Syntax of 
Personators. 

1. A Personator is a word or a phrase naming an actor, 
a receiver) or a subordinate ideal, (Idea, Group, Thought,) 
and used for ease, for euphony, or for emphasis, instead of a 
word, a phrase, or a clause, whose relation to the narration is 
shown by the Personator. 

Lit. Def. The word, m personator, means the office of one who 
speaks through* [something]. 

Anal. Personator. or, office of ; (a) t, that which ; son, sound, 
speaks ; per, through, by. 

2. The word, phrase, or clause, in whose place the Per- 
sonator stands, is called the Principal, the Precedent or the 
Antecedent of the Personator. 

1. Primitive Word Per'r. What did John do with Jane's 
books? Ans. He 71 put them 73 with his own 76 into her 76 
brother's desk 

He 11 is a Personator of the subject, John, and shows that its prin 
cipal or precedent, John, is neither the narrator, nor the narratee 
He is a personator ; because, it names an actor, and is used for eu 
phony in the place of a word, whose relation to the narration is 
shown by the personator, he. 

N. B. — He is numbered 7 , because it is a Personator, and is num- 
bered, 71 because it is a Personator of a subject. In like manner, them 
is marked, 73 because it is the Personator of a Direct Object, etc. 

* Anciently, play-actors wore masks, resembling the persons whose char- 
acters they represented ; hence, speaking a part through a mask came to be 
called, personating a character. As the actor spoke through his mask, so, by 
comparison, a word seems to speak through another word, representing it and 
standing in its place. 



PEESCXNATORS. 105 

Them is a Personator of the Direct Object, hooks, showing that 
its precedent, books, is neither the narrator, nor narratee. 

2. Derivative Word Per'r. The king, himself, 11 comes to- 
day, let the people take heed to themselves. 1 ' 

Himself is a Derivative Personator of the subject, king, with 
which it is used for emphasis, or repetition. Hence, it is used syno- 
nymously, or in apposition with the subject, king. The king, the 
king comes to-day, etc., etc. 

3. Phrase Person'rs. J, 71 myself, 11 will tell to thee, thyself 15 
what these men, themselves, said of their own business. 

1, myself, is a Phrase Personator of the subject, and shows that 
its principal is the name of the narrator. It is used both for eu- 
phony and for emphasis. 

Thee, thyself, is a Ph. Per'r. of an Ind. Obj. (not expressed), and 
shows that its antecedent is the name of the narratee. 

4. It 71 shall come to pass that* men will believe you* 
That men will believe you, shall come to pass. 

It, personates the clause subject, men icill oelieve you. 

Note I. Personators are not absolutely necessary in the construc- 
tion of a sentence ; nevertheless, they are convenient for the nar- 
rator, and pleasing to the narratee. Children learn the use of the 
Personator very slowly ; because, its use is so artificial. Hence, we 
often hear, " Harry wants Harry's stick," instead of "I want my 
stick." 

Relations of Personators to their Principals or Precedents. 

• 3. The Relation of a Personator to its Principal is shown 
by its Person, which is the name given to the means by 
which a Personator shows, that its Principal names the 
narrator, or names the narratee, or names neither of them. 

4. Personators, by their forms, show three Persons of 
their Principals, called the Firsts the Second, and the* Third 
Persons. 

5. Pei*sonators showing the First Person are those which 
show that their Principals name Narrators (Speakers or 
Writers). They are /, me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours. 

1. First Person. Harry says "I 71 have with me 75 my 78 
5* 



106 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. HI. 

books, and they are mine/' 76 The boys say " We 71 have 
with us 75 our 76 books, and they are ours." 76 

The Personator, i", shows that its principal, Harry, has the First 
Person, or names the narrator. In like manner, describe me, my, 
etc. (See Grammar, Declension of Pronouns.) 

6. Personators showing the Secoisd Person are those which 
show that, their Principals name Narratees (Hearers or Read- 
ers). They are Thou, thee, thy, thine, ye or you, your, yours. 

2. Second Person. Mary says to Jane " Thou hast with 
thee, thy fan, it is thine ;" or " You have with you, your fan, 
it is yours/' They say to the men " Ye have with you, your 
arms, they are yours." 

Thou is a Personator of the subject, Jane, and also shows that, 
Jane, its Principal, has the Second Person, or names the narratee. 

7 # Personators showing the Third Person are those which 
show that their Principals name neither Narrators nor Nar- 
ratees. They are He, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its, they, 
them, their, theirs. 

3. The man, himself, was the partner of his wife s uncle. 

4. Are you all in your places ? We are all in our places. 

5. Are they correct in their opinions of themselves ? 

6. Do I attend to my business? Dost thou attend to 
thy business ? Does he attend to his business ? Do they 
attend to their business? 

Selection of Personators. 

8. In the Selection of Personators, little, or nothing is 
left to the choice of the narrator. In some cases he may, 
or may not use a Personator, as he chooses, while in other 
cases he must use one; as in the 1st Ex. The elements, 
which may be used as Personators, are fixed by custom, 
each one showing a certain person, and, generally, some 
other attribute of its principal or precedent term; hence, 
we have the following; — 

Bulk Take from the list of elements so used, that word or 



PEBS0NAT0RS. 107 

phrase, which shows the person of its principal, and, if possi- 
ble, one or more of its other attributes. 

1. Jane says to Mary about her brother " (Jane 1 ) I 71 saw 
("Xary 3 you 73 and (your brother 3 ) him/' 73 

Jane, 1 names the narrator (first person), means but one, and is the 
subject ; hence, it must be personated by /, which, as a personator 
always shows, that its principal has the first person, means but one, 
and is a subject. 

Mary, names the narratee, means but one, and is a first object ; 
hence, it may be personated by thee, which shows that its principal 
has the second person, means but one, and may be an object, or a 
subject ; or, Mary may be personated by you, which shows that its 
principal has the second person, means one, or more than one, and 
may be used as a subject, or as an object. 

Brother is the name of a male, has the third person, means but 
one, and may be used as a subject, or as an object ; hence, it must 
be personated by him, which shows that its principal names a male, 
has the third person, means but one, and has the office of an object, 
or of a subject. 

Note I. When an emphatic personator is used with an element, 
they are logically the same, and hence, are used in apposition or 
synonymously, and are co-ordinate elements, while an adjunct ele- 
ment is subordinate to its principal. Hence, an " Adjective Pro- 
noun" is an impossibility. 

2. The man himself 71 mil be here this 6 day. 

Ellipsis or Omission of Personators. 

9. The narrator may omit and the narratee may under- 
stand a personator, when the same personator occurs in 
two, or more clauses of the same sentence. 

1. These men come and they go, they dig, they sow, they 
reap, they thresh. These men come and go, dig and sow, 
reap and thresh. 

Note I. When a subject, naming the narratee, is omitted, its 
place is usually supplied by a personator ; thus, Go in peace, is am- 
plified, Go thou in peace, or Go ye in peace. Generally, it is better 
to describe g$ — as the predicate of — the name of the narratee. 

Syntax of Personators. 

Ktjle I. A Peesonatok must stand in the place of the ele* 
ment, which it personates. 



108 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. IIL, 

1. The boy took the girls' books and the boy put the 
girls' books with the boy's own books into the narrator's 
brother's desk, and the narratee saw the boy do these 
things. 

2. The boy took the girls' books, and [he J put their 
books, with his own books, into my brother's desk, and you 
saw him do these things. 

3. Behold, the people, the people rise to vindicate their 
rights. 

4 Behold, the people themselves rise to vindicate their 
rights. 

Rule II. When both the Personator and its Principal are 
expressed the Principal must be considered as explanatory of 
the Personator, and therefore in apposition with the Personator. 

5. He, the witness, had not seen her, the woman, since 
the transaction. 

Rule III. An Emphatic Personator must follow the element 
with which it is used, except it Personate an adjunct 

6. I, Paul, myself, write these things with mine own 
hand. 

Note I. The student should notice that a Personator always 
stands in the place of its principal or antecedent, while an Adjunct 
has its place near the place of its principal ; hence, the use of an 
element as an "Adjective Pronoun" is an absolute impossibility. 

Logical and Rhetorical Analyses of Personator s. 

1. Teacher. What did John do with Jane's books? 
Pupil. He put them with his own into her brother's desk. 

Special Analysis. Logically, Tie is the actor ; rhetorically, Tie is 
the personator of xhe subject, John. He is a personator, because 
it names the actor, and is used in the place of a subject. 

Them names the receiver, and is used as the personator ; because, 
etc. 

His names an idea subordinate to books, and personates John's, an 
adjunct of books. 

Her names an idea subordinate to brother's, and personates Jane's, 
an adjunct of the adjunct, brother's. 

Without personators, this example reads as follows ; — 

2. John put Jane's books with John's into Jane's 
brother's desk. •» 



PERSON ATORS. 



109 



Errors in the use of Personators. 

First Error. The first error in the use of fersonators is the 
attempt to use a personator as an adjunct; as, them men, them 
horses, them things. (Corrected) these or those men, these or those 
horses, these or those things. 

Second Error. Placing* a Personator between a subject and its 
predicate ; as Mary, she said it ; the tree, it grows. (Corrected.) 
Mary said it, the tree grows, etc. 

Third Error. Using a Personator when it is neither more con- 
venient nor euphonious than its principal. In these instances, the 
Personator frequently renders*the expression ambiguous. 

1. Teacher. What is the Earth ? Pupil. It is the planet, 
etc., meaning the Earth is the planet, etc. 

Fourth Error. Usage, no matter how prevalent, no matter 
how ancient, can never sanction or even make good the expression, 
It is me; because, we must not say, Me is it, as the equivalent of I 
am it, or its equivalent, It is I. (See Grammar, Cases of Subjects) 

2. "Was it I ? It was L Can it be ? It can be. Is it 
I? ItisL 

Suggestion. When the student has becomes familiar with Per- 
sonators, he may read with profit, and discuss with the Teacher, 
what he reads, about Pronouns in Chap. IV. 



110 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. ILL 



VIII. Connectors.* 

Outline. The Science of Connectors includes; first, the 
Definitions ; second, the Connections, and Relations ; third, 
the Selection; fourth, the Ellipsis or Omission, and fifth, 
the Syntax of Connectors. 

1. A Connectoe is a word, either naming a connection and 
used to join co-ordinate clauses, or naming a subordinate rela- 
tion and used to join a subordinate clause to a predicate. 

Lit. Def. The word, connector, means the office of that which ties 
together. 

Anal. Connector, tor, office of that which ; nee = nex, ties, 
binds ; con, together. 

1. He shook the fragment of his blade, and 8 he shouted, 
" Victory." 12 3 + 123 

Rhetorically, and is a connector joining- the clause, he shouted, 
Victory, to its co-ordinate clause, he shook the fragment of his 
blade. And is a connector ; because, it names a connection and is 
used to join co-ordinate clauses. 

2. Stay here until 8 1 return. 

Until is a connector joining the subord. cl., 1 return, to the pre- 
dicate, stay.' Formula ; f S = fg^-f-g- Translation ; f, subject, name 
of narratee understood ; S, stay here until I. ret urn ; = S, stay here ; 
4- , until ; F, I ; S, return. 

3. We contributed gold and silver and food and clothing 
to the sufferers. 

Note I. For convenience, Connectors naming connections are 
called Co-ordinate Connectors ; and Connectors naming subordinate 
relations are called Subordinate Connectors. 

Thus, in ex., 1, and is a Co-ordinate Connector ; because, it names 
a connection ; while, in ex., 2, until is a Subordinate Connector ; be- 
cause, it names a subordinate relation. 

* Suggestions for an Objective Oral Lesson in Connectors, together with exer- 
cises, etc, may be found in Chap. III. of the First Course, which see. 



CONNECTORS,. HI 



The Connections and the Relations of Connectors. 

2. The Connections shown by the Co-ordinate Connectors 
are; first, the connection of an effect to its cause ; second, the 
connection of two clauses by their resemblance ; third, the 
connection of two clauses by their contrast, and fourth, 
the correlations between a connector and an adjunct. 

1. Cause and Effect We will rejoice and be glad, because 8 
the harvest is abundant. 

The Co-ordinate connector, because, connects the effect, we will re- 
joice and be glad, to its cause, the harvest is abundant. 

2. The harvest is abundant, (cause) therefore we will re- 
joice and be glad, (effect) . 

3. Resemblance in Subjects. Men 1 dig the earth and 8 men 1 
sow the grain. 

The Co-ordinate connector, and, names the connection arising 
from resemblance ; the subjects in both clauses being the same. 

4. Resem,. in Fred's. The moon moves 2 around the earth 
and 8 the earth moves 2 around the sun. 

5. Resem. in D. Obj. Men build temples 3 , and time de- 
stroys them 73 . 

6. Resem. in I. Obj. Ice is melted by heat 5 and 8 water is 
evaporated by heat\ 

7. Contrast of Subj. Sorrow 1 comes at night, but 8 joy 1 
comes in the morning. 

The Co-ordinate connector, but, names the connection suggested 
by the contrast of the subjects, sorrow, joy. 

8. Contrast in Pred. Men build 2 temples, but 8 time de- 
stroys 2 them. 

9. Contrast in D. Obj. Farmers 1 raise grain, but florists 1 
raise flowers. 

10. Con'st. in expression only. 1+2 + 4 + 2 = 9 or 2 
+ 3 + 4 = 9. 

11. Con'st. in expression and in value. I have $3, or $4. 
I had rather have $5 than $4. 



112 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. HI. 

3. The term, Correlatively, is applied to the relation 

which each of two terms has to the other. 

Lit. Def The word, correlatively, means like that which carries 
lack and forth. 

Anal. Correlatively, timly, — ; la, carries; re, back; cor =• 
con, forth, together. 

12. Such 6 a man, as 8 he was, is seldom found. 

As joins the clause, he was, to the adjunct, such; while, the 
adjunct, such, shows that its clause, such a man is seldom found, 
is to be taken with the clause preceded by as. So that the . 
Connector, as, relates to the adjunct, such, and the adjunct, such, 
relates to the connector, as. Hence, the two are used correlatively. 

13. No man is so 6 fortunate as* always to be successful. 

14. He did as 6 much as 8 he could do, but he did not do 
as much as he wished to do. 

15. I can either stay, or I can go. You can neither stay, 
nor go. 

16. I can either eat, or I can drink. You can neither eat 
nor drink ; because, you have neither food nor water. 

4. Subordinate Connectors are so called from usage; 
they are really Relators, used to show the relation of a 
subordinate clause to a predicate. 

17. The grain will grow if 8 the soil be good. 

Special Analysis. If, logically, is a subordinate relation ; rhetor- 
ically, if is a subordinate connector ; because, it joins the subordinate 
clause, the soil be good, to the affirmer, will grow. 

18. Occupy till I come. 



Selection of Connectors. 

5. According to definition a real Connector must name 
an idea of connection, and since the words so used are 
fixed by custom, we have the following ; — 

Rule. Take from the words in general use as connectors, 
the one which best expresses the connection of cause and effect, 
resemblance, etc., which is to be named. 

1. He has done his duty, therefore he is happy. 



CONNECTORS. 113 

2. The flowers will blossom until they are nipped by the 
frost. 

3. Withdraw thy foot from thy neighbor's house, lest he 
be weary of thee and so hate thee. 

4. He did as much as he could do, but he-did not do as 
much as he wished to do. 

5. The son is as old as the father was twenty years ago. 

In ex., 5, as connects the clause, the father was twenty years ago, 
to as, an adjunct of the adjunct old. 

6. Either keep still, or go out. 

In ex., 6, or unites the clause, go out, to either, an adjunct of 



7. Such friends, as these friends have shown themselves 
to be, are friends indeed. 

In ex., 7, as unites the clause, these friends have shown themselves 
to be, to such, an adj unct word of friends. 

8. You will fail in your recitations if you study your 
lessons carelessly. 

9. Mary will be here before Martha is ready to receive 
her. 

10. Before I took a seat, I placed a seat before the man. 

11. He sought for his friends for he desired to see them. 



Ellipsis or Omission of Connectors. 

6. The narrator may omit and the narratee may under- 
stand a connector which occurs several times in the same 
sentence. 

Rule. Eitlier express a connector before the second clause, 
and omit it before the remaining clauses ; or, omit it before all 
Jbut the last clause. 

1. They have friends and neighbors and houses and 
lands. They have friends and neighbors, houses, lands. 
They have friends, neighbors, houses and land? 

Note I. A sentence, having all its connectors o*o, or more) 
expressed, is said to be in Pol-y-syn' -det-on, which means --^any con- 
nectors; while, a sentence, in which none, or -but one of S3veral 



114 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. m. 

connectors belonging to it, is expressed, is said to be in A-syn' -det-on, 
which means without connectors. 

2. John, James, Henry, and Joseph, are good boys. 
John, and James, and Henry, and Joseph, are good boys. 
John is a good boy, and James is a good boy, etc. 

Note II. Sometimes the contraction of a sentence gives a Subor- 
dinate Connector, used Correlatively, the appearance of being a 
Relative Adjunct. 

3. I have as much money as I need. I have as much 
money, as the money is, which money I need. 

F S T, in which, ¥ = I; S = have ; T = as much money as I need. 

T 

But F S T = F S T + fs(+)tJFS . 

Rhetorical Translation. F = subject personated by I; S = have, 
pred. of subj., personated by /; T = as much money as I need; or, as 
much money, as the money, which I need, is ; T = as much money ; of 
which, money is a 1st obj. of have; much, adj, of money ; as, adj. of 
much; + = as, connector, correlative with as; f = money, the subj., 
understood, and the, adj. of money ; s — is, understood, aff. of money ; 
( + ) shows that the clause is joined by a relative adj. ; t =s money, un- 
derstood, and which, relative acjj. ; F — subj., personated by/; S = 
need aff. of subj., personated by I. 

Note III. Many suppose that a Connector can be used to join 
words as well as sentences. This supposition has arisen from the 
occurrence of contractions in Compound Sentences, in which con- 
tractions, the Connectors and a word from each clause are all that 
remain. Thus ; — 

4. James and John go to school ; that is, James goes to 
school and John goes to school. 

5. I saw a man and a boy. I saw a man and I saw a 
boy. 

6. Virtue, Diligence, and Prudence produce their own 
reward ; that is, Virtue produces its own reward, and 
Diligence produces its own reward, and Prudence produces 
its own reward. 

7. Two and two are four ; that is, two added to two be- 
come four, or two added to two are four. The original 
expression may have been, " It takes a two and a two to make 
a four ;" or, " Two and two put together make four" 



CONNECTORS. 115 



Syntax of Connectors. 

7 r In the English Language a Connector precedes its 
subsequent term, and when the subsequent term is trans- 
posed, the Connector must be transposed with it. 

1. My father and 8 my mother came, but 8 they did not 
stay. I will let you know if they come again. 

2. If 8 thou be wise thou shalt be wise for thyself, but 
if 8 thou scornest, thou alone shalt bear it. Thou shalt be 
wise for thyself if thou be wise, etc. 

$Tote I. In some languages, connectors are divided into the In- 
terpositive, or those which are placed between the clauses which 
they connect, and the Postpositive or those which are placed after 
the first, second or third element of a subsequent clause. 

Logical and Rhetorical Analysis. 

1. He shook the fragment of his blade and he shouted 
"Victory!" 

General Analysis. 12 3 + 12 3. 

Special Analysis. And, logically, is an idea of connection between 
two thoughts ; rhetorically, and is used as the connector of the two 
clauses, he shook the fragment of his blade, he shouted " Victory !" 
And is a connector, because it names an idea of connection between 
two thoughts, and joins the clauses expressing those thoughts. 

2. The waves ebb and flow, but the solid rocks remain 
unchanged for ages. 

General Analysis. FS + fS + FS. 

Special Analysis. Logically, but is an idea of connection between 
two thoughts ; rhetorically, but is used as the connector of the two 
clauses expressing rhe two thoughts, the waves ebb and flow, the solid 
rocks remain unchanged for ages. 

Suggestion. Students who have become familiar with Connec- 
tors may now read what is said concerning conj unctions in Chap. IV. 



116 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [cHAF. HI. 

IX. Exclamatives. 

Definitions. 

1 . An Exclaiiative is a word, a phrase, or a clause express $, 
ing some passion, or emotion, and generally, some ideal also, 
by which the narrator's passions, or emotions have been aroused 
or excited. 

Note I. Exclamatives are sometimes called Interjections, and 
sometimes, Ejaculations. 

Note II. When the Exclamative is prompted by a real feeling*, 
emotion, or passion, it is a very effective part of speech ; but, when 
feigned, or too often used, it loses its force, and becomes tiresome. 

1. Oh, that mine enemy had done this thing ! 

* Rhetorically, Oh, is a word exclamative ; because, it names an ex- 
cited feeling, and shows a passion, or emotion of the narrator. 

Rhetorically, Oh, that mine enemy had done this thing, is a sen- 
tence exclamative, showing that the narrator's passions, or emotions 
are excited by the thought narrated. 

2. Star of the twilight ! Beautiful star ! 

Special Analysis. Star of the twilight! is an" exclamative phrase, 
showing that the star is addressed by the narrator. (See Chap. Y., Fig- 
urative language, Personification.) Its principal word is star ; its ad- 
junctive words, the, twilight; its word of relation, of. 

Note III. The Exclamative is usually analyzed by simply stating 
the kind of emotion, etc., which it expresses ; but, each word of an Ex- 
clamative phrase should be analyzed as if the expression were not an 
Exclamative. 

3. The boy exclaimed, " O dear ! dear !" 

4. The exclamations, "Oh!" " Ah !" escaped from each 
hearer. 

5. "What a wretch!" I exclaimed. 

6. The mother repeated the simple exclamation, there! 
there ! there I 



EXCLAMATTVES. 117 

7. Hail, Columbia, Happy land ! 

Happy land ! is a phrase Exclamative ; because, etc. 

8. " Heaven save your Majesty !" " God bless the Queen V 
are frequently repeated, when Victoria appears in public. 

Heaven save your Majesty/ is a clause Exclamative ; because, etc. 

Syntax of the Exclamative. 

Utile I. An exclamative, possessing high passion or emotion, 
must be placed at the beginning of the expression in which it 
is used. 

1. " Revenge ! Revenge ! Victory, or Death I" fiercely 
shouted the men. 

Rule II. An Exclamative, expressing a lower passion or 
emotion, may appear in any part of the expression in which 
it belongs. 

2. The people shouted, Hurrah, for our President ! 

Exception. — The Exclamation may appear in any part of 
the expression. 

3. He woke to hear his sentry's shriek, 

To arms ! They come ! The Greek ! The Greek ! 

Analysis of the Exclamation. 

1. Humph ! I do not understand you. 

General Analysis. Humph ! is language expressing a feeling of 
disdain. It is simply an ejaculation ; because, it does not express an 
ideal. 

2. He will he here to-day ! did you say ? 

General Analysis. He will be here to-day!, logically, is a simple 
thought, used as the receiver of the action, say ; rhetorically, it is a 
first object exclamative clause ; therefore, grammatically, it is an Ex- 
clamative clause noun. Neuter , third , singular , ob- 
jective case. 

As a sentence, its immediate elements are; he, personator of the 
subject ; will be, predicate ; here, to-day, adjuncts of the predicate. 

The sentence may now be parsed according to the following notation. 

3. He 71 will be aph here 6 to-day 6 . 



118 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. HI. 

Note IV. The Exclamation is usually analyzed by simply stating 
the kind of emotion, etc., which it expresses ; but, if a verb, or other 
part of speech be used, it should be classified according to the pre- 
ceding principles. 

Miscellaneous Examples in the Offices of "Words. 

Note. In analyzing the following examples, the student should 
constantly keep in mind, that the office of a word depends on two things ; 
first, the idea named by the word ; second, the use which is made of the 
word in the construction of the sentence. This is important ; because, 
the office of a word is the basis of its grammatical classification ; and, 
the same word may be used to fill different offices in a sentence. 

1. The watchman watches his watch. 

2. Mr. Wells' well is well filled with well-water. 

3. I saw the saw in the saw-mill. 

4. Paint preserves edifices. 

5. Painters paint houses with paint. 

6. Mr. Waters waters the plants with a cupful of water. 

•7. The dock-builders dock the timber according to the length 
of the dock. 

8. This inn is kept by Mr. Innis. 

9. Post no bills on this post. 

10. In the Spring, water springs from the springs. 

11. The bubbles bubble up from the mud. 

12. Butter the bread with fresh butter. 

13. Arm yourselves with the choicest of arms. 

14. He stores his. store of goods in the stores. 

15. The dogs bay at the bay horses in the big bay. 

16. They is a personator. 

17. Ducks duck down into the duck- weed. 

18. Mr. Black's black coat blacks his white waistcoat very 
badly. 



CLASSIFICATIONS OF SENTENCES. 119 



CLASSIFICATIONS OF SENTENCES. 

1. Sentences are classified according to their formation 
and according to their relations. 

2. According to formation, sentences are Simple and 
Compound. 

Simple Sentences. 

3. A Simple Sentence is the name or expression of a simple 
thought ; or, a Simple Sentence is a sentence whose immediate 
elements are words, or words and phrases. 

Note I. Many use the following definition, * A Simple Sentence 
is a sentence having one subject nominative and one finite verb." 
This is erroneous ; because, it includes complex compound sentences. 
(See Phil. Lang., Chap. III., Mules for Definition.) 

1. Men live ; I 1 * I. 2 Some men live in houses of stone ; 
i* ji* p* J* ^ 

Rhetorically, men live, is a Simple sentence; because, it names or 
expresses a simple thought. It has two word elements. Its formula 
is F S. 

Some men live in houses of stone is a Simple sentence ; because, 
etc. Its formula is F S. It has seven word elements ; or, it has 
two separable phrase elements, some men, houses of stone, and the 
word elements, live, in. Its Principal elements are the subject, men, 
and the predicate, live. (See p. 60.) 

2. Thinkers think thoughts ; I 1 * I 2 * I. 3 Some thinkers 
always think profitable thoughts ; i* I 1 * I 2 * I* I. 3 F S T 

3. A diligent student is always respected by his acquain- 
tances. Z Y X 

The Simple sentence, a diligent student, etc., has for its immediate 
elements, the inseparable phrase, is respected, and seven word ele- 
ments ; or, the inseparable phrase, is respected, the separable phrases, 
a diligent student, his acquaintances, and the words, always, by. Its 
Principal elements are the subject, student, and the predicate, ia 



120 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. Itt. 

4. Word element. A 6 great 6 man 1 must 2 always 6 6e 2 a 6 good 8 
man} 

Principal elements, subject, man, predicate, must be. 

5. Word element "The meteor of the ocean air shall 
sweep the clouds no more." 12 3 

Principal elements, subj., clouds; pred., shall sioeep, direct object, 
i louds.^ 

6. The 6 clouds 1 shall 2 no 6 more 6 be 6 swept 2 by 4 the 6 meteor 5 
of 4 the 6 ocean 6 air. 6 3 2 1 

Principal elements, subject, clouds ; pred., shall be swept. Shall 
sweep and shall be swept are Inseparable Phrase Elements. 

7. Phrase element: The Jersey Blues™ were singing P2 
Old Hundred? 3 X Y Z 

8. Old Hundred was sung by the Jersey Blues. 

9. In the same year, the Commander-in-Chief will be 
revisiting that famous old resort, " The Newport House." 
EST 

Note II. These word and phrase elements are the names of the 
element ideas and groups, used in those thoughts, which are named 
by the sentence. 

4. Since the subject must name either the actor, or the 
receiver of the action and, since the predicate must show 
by its voice whether its subject be the actor, or the receiver, 
it follows, first, that a Simple sentence, naming a thought 
of two parts, must be Actively constructed ; second, that a 
Simple sentence, naming a thought of three parts, may be 
Actively, or it may be Passively constructed. Hence, we 
have the following ; — 

Rule I. When the subject names the First Primary or 
Actor, the predicate must be put in its Active Voice ; or, the 
sentence must be Actively Constructed. 

10. Actively Con'd. Birds fly. Some birds fly very 
swiftly through the air. F S 

11. Columbus discovered America. Christopher Colum- 
bus, the navigator, discovered America in 1492. F S T 



CLASSIFICATIONS OF SENTENCES. 



121 



12. The very best book of all books (First P.) imparts to 
man (Second P.) the most truly blessed consolations (Third 

p.). 

Etjle IL When the subject names the Third Primary or 
Receiver, the predicate must be put in its Passive Voice ; or, 
the sentence must be Passively Constructed. 

13. Passively Cortd. America ivas discovered in 1492, by 
Christopher Columbus, the navigator. TSF 

14. The most truly blessed consolations are imparted to 
man by the very best book of all books. T S F 



TABLE, 

STwwing the Construction of Simple Sentences. 



Act'y Cons'd. 
Act'y Cons'd. 
Pass'y Cons'd. 



Subjects. 

Word, 

Phrase. 

Word, 

Phrase. 

Word, 

Phrase. 


Pred. 
Word, 
Phrase. 
Word, 

Phrase. 

Phrase. 


D. Obj. 

Word, 
Phrase. 


ReVr. 
Word. 

Word. 


Word. 



/. Ob j. 
Word, 
Phrase. 
W^ord, 
Phrase. 
Word, 
Phrase. 



Note III. Connectors, Relative Adjuncts and Clauses cannot be 
used as elements of Simple sentences. 

Compound Sentences. 
5. A Compound Sentence is t/Te name or expression of a 
Compound thought ; or, a Compound Sentence ^s a sentence 
having one, or more clauses among its immediate elements. 

1. The North River was called the Hudson in honor of 
its discoverer, Hendrick Hudson, and the South Eiver was 
called the Delaware in honor of Lord De La Warr, one of 
the original proprietors of that region. 

This ex., is a Compound sentence ; because, it expresses a com- 
pound thought ; or, because it has two clauses, the North Eiver, 
etc., the South River, etc., among its immediate elements. 

2. Thinking is the unification of our knowledge, while 
talking is the expression of our knowledge. 

The immediate elements of this ex., are two clauses ; thinking, 
etc., while, etc. ; hence it is a Compound sentence. 

6 



122 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. m. 

3. Have you heard students use Thought Language in- 
correctly? 

This ex., has one word, you, one phrase, ham heard, and one 
clause, students use Thought Language incorrectly, immediate ele- 
ments ; hence it is a Compound sentence. 

6. Compound Sentences are classified ; first, according 
to the modes of joining their clauses ; second, according to 
their immediate clauses. 

7 . According to the modes of joining their clauses, Com- 
pound Sentences are divided into Connected [Compound] 
Sentences, and Complex or Mixed [Compound] Sentences. 

Note I. For convenience. Connected Compound sentences are 
called Connected sentences ; Complex or Mixed Compound sentences, 
Complex or Mixed sentences, because all Connected and Complex 
sentences are Compound sentences. 

8. A Connected Sentence is a Compound Sentence whose 
clauses are joined by connectors either expressed or under- 
stood. 

4. He rejoiced at my prosperity, and 8 he deplored my 
adversity ; therefore will I have confidence in him until 8 
other charges against him have been proved. 

Ex., 4, is a Connected [Compound] sentence, having three clauses 
joined by the connectors, and, therefore, until. 

5. Men, live and 8 men die, but 8 God lives forever. 

Ex., 5, is a Connected sentence, whose immediate elements are the 
connected clause, men live and 8 men die; the, simple clause, God 
lives forever, and the connector, but. 

The Connected clause, men live and men die, has three immediate 
elements, the two simple clauses, men live, men die, and the connec- 
tor, and, 

6. Men think, hence 8 men must use thought language. 
The Connected sentence, men think, etc., has three immediate 

elements; the two co-ordinate clauses, men think, men must use 
thought language, joined by the co-ordinate connector, hence. 

7. Napoleon III. surrendered himself, a prisoner, because 
he was without an army, but the French peo£3le did not 
surrender. 

8. The grass will grow if 8 the rains come. 



CLASSIFICATIONS OF SEOTENCES. 123 

Ex., 8, is a Connected sentence, having three immediate elements ; 
the principal clause, the grass will grow ; its subord. clause, the rains 
come ; and the subord. connector, if 

9. A Connected Sentence, whose clauses are joined 
by a coordinate connector, always expresses a Connected 
thought ; but a Connected Sentence, whose clauses are 
joined by a sub-ordinate connector, always expresses a 
Complex or Mixed thought. 

9. The book was carefully perused, and then it was sent 
home. 

Analysis. Rhetorically, the hook was, etc., is a connected sentence, 
whose clauses are joined by the co-ordinate connector, and ; hence, 
it is a connected sentence. It expresses a connected thought. 

10. In the morning sow thy seed, and in the evening 
withhold not thy hand. 

11. He never lends an umbrella, although he has a 

dozen. F s+ r ST T 

Analysis. He never lends, etc., is a connected sentence, whose 
clauses are joined by the subordinate connector, although; hence, it 
is a connected sentence. * It expresses a complex thought. 

12. If thou be wise thou shalt be wise for thyself, but 8 
if thou scornest, thou alone shalt bear it. 

Ex. 12, is a Connected sentence, whose immediate elements are 
two compound clauses, and the co-ordinate connector, but. Each 
of these clauses has three immediate elements ; a principal clause ; 
a subordinate clause, and a subordinate connector, if. Hence, it has 
three immediate elements ; two compound clauses and one connec- 
tor, which may be analyzed into four simple clauses and three con- 
nectors. 

10. A Complex or Mixed Sentence is a compound sen- 
tence having one y or more subject , object or adjunct clauses 
among its immediate elements. 

11. A Complex or Mixed Sentence always expresses a 
complex or mixed thought. 

13. The gentlemen were urged to take dinner by the lady. 
The gentlemen, etc., is a Complex or Mixed sentence, having for 

its immediate elements, the clause subject, the gentlemen to take 
dinner ; the phrase pred., were urged; the relators, to, by ; the sec. 
obj., lady ; and the ad^ ** 



124 CONSTRUCTIVE BHETOKIC. [CHAP. HI. 

The relation of the_cl. sub., the gentlemen to take dinner, to the 
. rest of the sentence, is shown by the Form of the clause. 
The original forms of this Complex sentence are ; — 

Actively Constructed. The lady urged the gentlemen to take din- 
ner. c13 

Passively Constructed. The gentlemen to take dinner 01 1 was urged 
by the lady. 

14. That the gentlemen did not take dinner 01 l surprised the 
lady. 

Ex., 14, is a Complex sentence ; because, it has the clause sub- 
ject, the gentlemen did not take dinner, among its immediate 
elements, which are, one clause and three word elements. 

The subject clause, the gentlemen did n^ttake dinner, is related to 
the rest of the sentence by the inceptive relator, that. 

15. For gentlemen to take dinner is common. It is 
common for gentlemen to take dinner. 

Ex., 15, is a complex sent., whose clause subject, gentlemen to take 
dinner, is related to the sentence by the inceptive relator, for. 

16. "Do good to your enemies" is a Divine precept. 

" Do good to your enemies" is a clause subject related to its sen- 
tence by quotation. 

Note IT. The term, Quotation, refers to an idea of something 
said, or written by another narrator. The Quotation Marks are the 
signs used to express an idea of quotation. The two must not be 
confounded. 

17. " Dust thou art, to dust returnest was not spoken of 
[to] the soul." 

Dust thou art, to dust returnest is a connected cl. subj. 

Note III. When a Subject Clause is used in a sentence passively 
constructed, the subject of the Clause is taken as the subject of the. 
sentence, and is placed before the affirmer of the sentence, and the 
remainder of the Subject Clause is placed after the affirmer, except 
when inceptive relators and quotations are used. 

18. He was desired to come into Italy by the people. He 
to come into Italy was desired by the people. The people 
desired him to come into Italy. 

19. " I will try it" has done wonders. 

Note IV. The relations of clause subjects to their sentences are 
shown in three ways ; by Form of the Clause ; by the Inceptives, 
thai, for, and by the Quotation. (See Relations of Subjects.) 



CLASSIFICATIONS OF SENTENCES. 125 

20. The lady urged the gentlemen to take dinner, 

Ex., 20, is a Mixed Sent., having three word and one clause imme- 
diate elements. 

The Direct Obj., the gentlemen to take dinner, is related to the 
predicate urged, by the Form of the Clause. 

21. He said that Saturn came into Italy. 

Ex., 21, is a Mixed Sent., whose First Obj., Saturn came into Italy, 
is related to the predicate, said, by the inceptive relator, that. 

22. The Creator did not say, " Dust thou art," to the 
human soul. 

This ex., is a Mixed Sent., whose D. Obj., Dust thou art, is related 
to the pred., say, by Quotation. 

Note V. The relations of Clause Direct Objects to their predi- 
cates are shown in three ways ; by the Form of the Clause ; by the In- 
ceptive, that, and by Quotation. (See Relations of Direct Objects.) 

23. "Art thou my friend?" said some person. 

24. Somebody asked Saturn to come into Italy. 

25. Let your songs resound. 

26. He bade them depart in peace. 

Note VI. Every subject, whether a word, a phrase, or a clause, is 
co-ordinate to its predicate, and to the direct object of its predicate ; 
so, every direct object is co-ordinate to its predicate and to the sub- 
ject of its predicate. That is, the Principal elements of a sentence 
are co-ordinate elements. 

27. I sent for 4 him to come to me. cl 5 

This ex., is a Complex sentence, having three word and one 
clause immediate elements, of which the second object clause, him 
to come to me, is related to its predicate, sent, by the relator, for. 

The 27th ex., may be the result of a contraction, such as would 
take place in the following example, if the words, for I wished him, 
were omitted. 

28. I sent for 4 him [for* I wished him] to come $o me. 

29. Wonders have been done by " I will try it." 

• This ex., is a Mixed sentence, having the quoted cl. First Object, 
"I will try it," related to the predicate, have been done, by the relator, 
by. This clause is a Second Object actor. 

30. The scaffold was broken by the great tveight placed 
upon it. 015 

31. The lady rode on 4 a horse led by her brother. 

32. The wife thought of her husband imprisoned by his 
captors. 



126 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. IH. 

Her husband imprisoned by his captors may be analyzed as an 
Indirect Object, related to its predicate, thought, by the relator, of; 
or, as a contraction of, who was imprisoned by his captors. 

Note VII. The relations of Second Object clauses to their predi- 
cates are always shown by relators expressed, or understood. (See 
Relations of Second Objects.) 

33. They sent supplies to the troops besieging the city. 
They sent supplies to the troops \who were] besieging the city. 

34. I heard of him going to town. 

35. The general erred in employing an inexperienced 
guide. 

36. We have succeeded in finding the requisite papers. 

37. He thought 2 of his parents being in trouble. 01 5 

38. He talked 2 of [himself] going to town 01 5 

39. He dreamed 2 of climbing the Alps 015 

Note VIII. The student should observe carefully the difference be- 
between subsequent terms related by of. A Subsequent, which is 
related by of to a predicate, is always a Second Object of that predi- 
cate, but a Subsequent, which is related by of to a non -predicate, is 
an Adjunct of the non-predicate. (See Relators and Relations of 
Indirect Objects.) 

Thus, in examples, 87, 38, 39, the antecedents of the relator, of, 
are predicates, hence, its subsequent terms are Second Objects ; but, 
in examples, 40, 41, 42, the antecedents of the relator, of, are non- 
predicates, hence, its subsequent terms are Adjuncts. 

40. He had no thought 3 of his parents' being in trouble 01 6 

41. We had no talk 3 of [his] going to town. 01 * 

42. He dreamed a dream 3 of climbing the Alps 01 6 

Each of the last three examples is a Mixed sentence, having" a 
relator Adjunct clause related to a direct object by the relator, of. 

43. The upstart was full of his own growing into public 
notice. 

In this Complex sentence, the relator clause adjunct, his own 
grotcing into public notice, is related to the adjunct, full, by the 
relator, of 

44. The house, which [house] stands near the river,' be- 
longs to me. 

Ex., 44, is a Mixed sentence, having the relative adjunct clause, 
which [house] belongs to me, among its elements. This adjunct 
clause is related to its principal element, house, by the relative 
adjunct, which. 



CLASSIFICATIONS OF SENTENCES. 127 

45. The rain fell in torrents while we were coming to 
thejboat. 

The rain fell in torrents during the time, in which time, we were 
coming to the boat. 

The relative adjunct, while, is equivalent to the second objects, in 
ichich time, during which time, but may be taken as the adjunct of 
the predicate, were coming, and having for its antecedent, the 
affirm er, fell ; thus joining the relative adjunct clause, while we 
were coming to the boat, as a subordinate, to its principal, the rain 
fell in torrents. 

46. I have found the knife, which [knife] you lost. 

Note IX. The relations of adjunct clauses to their principal ele- 
ments are shown by of, used as a relator, and by relative adjuncts. 
(See Relations of Adjuncts.) 

47. The box was sent to the house in which you boarded. 

48. The boy left the pail standing by the well. 

The boy left the pail, which pail was standing by the well. 

49. The man, who brings the machine to you, will wait 
while you are trying if. 

The man, etc., is a Mixed sentence, having three clauses ; first 
clause, the man will wait ; sec. cl., who [man] brings the machine to 
you, joined by the relative adjunct, who, to its antecedent, man ; 
third cl., while you are trying it, is joined by the relative adjunct, 
while, to its antecedent, will wait. 

12. According to their immediate clauses, Compound 
Sentences are of the First Degree, of the Second Degree, of 
the Third Degree, etc. 

13. A Compound Sentence of the First Degree is a 
Compound Sentence having one, or more simple immediate 
dement clauses. m 

50. Do you wish this class to come now ? 

Ex., 50, is a Compound sentence of the First Degree ; because, it 
has the simple clause, this class to come now, as one of its three im- 
mediate elements ; the word, you ; the inseparable phrase, do wish, 
and the simple clause, this class to come now. 

51. You stood and she sat. You stood while she was 
sitting. 

Ex., 51, is a Compound sentence of the First Degree ; because, its 
immediate elements, you stood, she sat, axe simple clauses. 



128 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. m. 

14. A Compound Sentence of the Second Degkee is a 
Compound Sentence having one, or more Primary compound 
clauses among its immediate elements. 

52. "Boast not thyself of to-morrow, for thou knowest 
not what a day may bring forth." 

Ex., 52, is a Compound sentence of the Second Degree ; because, 
it has the compound clause of the First degree, Thou knowest not 
what a day may bring forth, as an immediate element. 

53. " Whoso loveth instruction, loveth knowledge ; but 
he, that hateth reproof, is brutish." 

Ex., 53, has two immediate clauses of the First degree. They are 
joined by the connector, but. 

15. A Compound Sentence of the Third Degree is a 
Compound Sentence having one, or more compound clauses 
of the Second Degree among its immediate elements. 

54. " There is [one person] that maketh himself rich, 
yet hath nothing ; and, there is [one person] that maketh 
himself poor, yet hath great riches." 

Ex., 54, is a Compound sentence of the Third Degree ; because, it 
has two immediate clauses of the Second degree. They are joined 
by the connector, and. 



SECOND CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 129 



Second Classification of Sentences. 

1. According to their relations. Sentences are divided 
into three kinds ; — 

First. Sentences, Independent in Thought and in Form or In- 
dependent Sentences. 
Second. Sentences, Dependent in Thought and Independent in 

Form. 
Third. Sentences, Dependent in Thought and in Form or De- 
pendent Sentences. 

2. An Independent Sentence is; first, an entire sentence 
expressing an Independent thought ; second, an element sen- 
tence or clause expressing an Independent element thought 
They are Independent in Thought and in Form. 

Note I. Independent Sentences include all Simple and Compound 
Sentences taken entire ; ail leading or principal clauses, and all 
clauses joined to principal clauses by co-ordinate connectors. An 
Independent clause may be used without change of form as an 
entire sentence. 

1. Men live. Birds fly and fishes swim. I will send him 
to find his book. 

Each of these sentences is an Independent Sentence ; because, it 
expresses an Independent thought. Each of the element sentences 
or clauses, birds fly, I will send him, is an Independent Clause ; be- 
cause, it names an independent element thought and is the prin- 
cipal or leading clause of a compound sentence. 

The clause, fishes swim, is an Independent Clause ; because, it 
names an independent element thought and is joined to the leading 
clause, birds fly, by the co-ordinate connector, and. 

2. The rulers compelled the people to do military duty. 
The people were compelled by the rulers to do military duty. 

The rulers compelled — , were compelled by the rulers are Indepen. 
dent Clauses ; because, etc. 

3. The giiis will attend the excursion if the day be pleasant, 
but the boys will attend it whether the day be pleasant, or 
not. 



130 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. m. 

4. We shall hear them sing if they come this way. 

5. A house once stood here, where we are now standing. 

3. A Sentence Dependent in Thought and Independent 
in Form is an element sentence or clause, which names a de- 
pendent thought and is joined to another clause by a sub- 
ordinate connector ; by a relative adjunct ; by the inceptive 
relator, that, or by quotation. 

6. By a subord. connector. I will marry if I find a desir- 
able partner. 

I find a desirable partner is a clause Dependent in Thought and 
Independent in Form ; because, it names a dependent subordinate 
thought, and is joined to another clause by a subordinate connector. 

7. The girls will attend the excursion if 8 the day be pleasant, 
but the boys will attend it whether 8 the day be pleasant, or 
not. 

8. By inceptive, that. That 4 we love each other is not a 
strange occurrence. 

We love each other, is a clause Dependent in Thought and Inde- 
pendent in Form; because, it names a dependent co-ordinate 
thought, and is related to the rest of the sentence by the inceptive 
relator,~tAa£. 

9. I have always found that 4 pupils recite poorly if they 

memorize their lessons. 

10. By Relative Ad. 

" Her deck, once wet with heroes' blood, where knelt the conquered foe t 
When winds were hurrying o'er the flood, and waves were white below, 
No more shall feel the conquerors' tread/' 

In ex., 10, the subordinate clauses are dependent in thought, and 
independent in form. Once wet with heroes' blood is a contracted 
ad. clause, related to its principal, deck, by the rel. ad., which, un- 
derstood. Where knelt the conquered foe is a rel. ad. cl. of deck, to 
which it is related by the rel. ad., where. When winds were hurry- 
ing o'er the flood, and [when] waves were white below is a comp. cl. 
ad. of the predicate, knelt, related by the rel. ad., when. 

11. By quotation. "Do your duty " is a good motto. I said 
"Do your duty." The name was written under the motto, 
" Do your duty" 

4t. A Dependent Sentence is an element sentence or clause, 
which names a dependent thought and is joined to another 



SECOND CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 131 

clause by the Form of the Clause, or by a relator. They are 
Dependent in Thought and in Form. 

•12. They were supposed by us to be the men. 

They to be the men is a Dependent clause subject. It is Depen- 
dent in Thought, because it names a dependent thought, and is 
Dependent in Form ; because the predicate, be, is related to its sub- 
ject,, men, personated by them, by the relator, to. 

13. "We supposed them to be the men. 

Them to be the men is a Dependent clause first object. It is De- 
pendent in Thought ; because, etc. It is Dependent in Form ; be- 
cause, its relation to the predicate, supposed, is shown by the Form 
of the Clause. 

14. For 4 men to love their friends is man-like, but for 4 men 
to love their enemies is God-like. 

Men to love their friends is a Dependent clause subject, whose 
relation to the rest of the sentence is shown by the inceptive relator, 
for, and by the Form of the Clause. 

15. It is good for us to consider every word which we 
use. 

16. What were you saying about 4 the people living in the 
central part of Europe f 

The people living in the central part of Europe is a Dependent 
clause second object, related to the predicate, were saying, by the 
relator, about. 

17. We have read of Alexis shooting buffaloes. 015 

18. We have read the story of Alexis* shooting buffaloes. 01 6 
In ex., 17, Alexis shooting buffaloes is a Dependent clause second 

object. In ex., 18, Alexis' shooting buffaloes is a Dependent clause 
adjunct. 

5 . Dependent clauses are of two kinds ; Primary and 
Secondary or Subordinate. 

6. A Pebiajrt Dependent clause is a clause used as a sub- 
ject, or as a direct object. 

19. " / ivill try it " has done wonders. 

"I will try it" is a Primary Dependent clause subject. It is co- 
ordinate to the predicate, has done, and to its direct object, wonders. 

20. We knew these sheep to be yours by their ear-marks. 
We knew that these sheep were yours by their ear-marks. 



132 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP, in. 

These sheep to be yours and these sheep were yours, are used as 
direct objects of the predicate, knew ; hence, they are Primary De- 
pendent direct object clauses. 

7. A Subordinate or Secondary Dependent clause is a 
clause used as an indirect object ; as an adjunct, or is joined 
to another clause by a subordinate connector. 

21. Wonders have been done by " I will try it." 

22. Harmony of action must be maintained by men 

struggling for the accomplishment of a great purpose. 

23. We have received no notice of John's teaching our 
school next winter. 

24. May every year but draw more near the time when 
strife shall cease. 

25. Man, always afflicted, will be sullen and despondent ; 
always successful, will be giddy and insolent. [A] man 
[who is] always afflicted, etc. 

26. " We live in thoughts, not years ; in feelings, not figures on 

a dial. 
We should count time by heart throbs. He lives most, 
Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best." 

27. My son, if 4 thou wilt receive my words, and hide my 
commandments with thee ; so that thou incline thine ear unto 
wisdom, and apply thy heart to understanding ; yea, if 4 thou 
criest after knowledge, and If test up thy voice for understand- 
ing ; if 4 thou seekest her as silver, and sear chest for her as for 
hid treasures; then shalt thou understand the fear of the 
Lord, and find the knowledge of God. 

Note II. The uncontracted sentence, expressing its thought in 
full, seems to have been compared to the circumference of a circle, 
including a whole or perfect circular area ; while, the Elliptical or 
Contracted sentence, expressing a part of the thought only, seems 
to have been compared to the circumference of an ellipse, including 
a part of a circular area. This view is farther confirmed by the 
fact, that the point, placed at the end of an uncontracted sentence, 
is called the Period, a word which, literally, signifies a circumfer- 
ence or circular road. (See Arith., Mensuration, Circle, Ellipsis.) 

General Law. The part of an Elliptical or Contracted 
sentence which is expressed, must suggest to the narratee that 
part of itself which is not expressed. 



CONTRACTIONS. 133 

Note III. Contracted or Elliptical sentences may be used in 
ordinary narration, and in the transactions of common business, ag 
a means of saving both talk and time. In important transactions, 
Contracted sentences should be used with great caution, becausa 
they are liable to be ambiguous. In legal documents, the sentences 
are amplified, instead of being contracted. 

Note IV. The Ellipsis of language is a part of that labor-saving 
tendency, which is a characteristic of human intelligence and of 
human progress. Heretofore, too little attention has been given to 
this subject, as a part of the Science of Language. The principals, 
according to which language is contracted, should be clearly and 
fully explained to the student. He should understand perfectly the 
thought which the contracted sentence is intended to express; 
what contractions are admissible, and what are inadmissible. 

Special Contractions. 
Note I. Sometimes a contraction takes place, when a second ob- 
ject is logically the same as the subject of the next clause. This is 
especially the case, when the second object is preceded by the relator, 
for, and the next clause is preceded by a connector signifying cause ; 
as, one of the connectors, for, because, that, etc. 

1. He called for me, for I was to go with him. 

In this example, we have the second object, me, logically the same 
as the subject, I, of the next clause ; while, the second object, me, has 
its relation shown by the relator, for; and, the co-ordinate clause, 1 
was to go with him, is joined by the causative connector, for ; hence, 
we may omit for, I was, and we have the contracted sentence ; 

He called for me to go with him. 

Under Second Objects, we have already shown, that me to go with 
Mm, might be regarded as a sentential second object, having its rela- 
tion to the predicate, called, shown by the relator, for. We, however, 
prefer to regard these as contracted sentences; because, when the 
second object and the following subjects are not logically the same, this 
contraction cannot occur. Thus ; — 

2. He called for me, for he was to go with me. 

3. He sought for books, to enable him to occupy his atten- 
ftion. He sought for books to occupy his attention. 

4. The rich man gave money to the poor, that these might 
he enabled to buy food for their children. 

J>. At ten, a child; at twenty, wild; at thirty, a wife, if 
ever : at forty, strong ; at fifty, wise ; at sixty, rich, or never. 
6. I do not know who did it. I do not know the person, 
who [person] did it. 



134 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. HI. 

8. The Secondary, or Compound Contractions are 
formed by using two, or more Primary Contractions in 
the same Compound Sentence. These Contractions are 
made according to the principles laid down in the preced 
ing, or Primary Contractions. 

1. He will bestow food, and he will bestow raiment. 
Contracted Form. He will bestow food and raiment. \ t 

2. The king made great works, and the king made fenced 
cities. 

3. We took a long walk, and we took a pleasant walk. 

Contracted Form. We took a long and pleasant walk. 

4. " The true monarchs of every country are those, whose 
sway is over thought and emotion." 

Uncontracted Form. The true monarchs of every country are 
those, whose sway is over thought, and the true monarchs of every 
country are those, whose sway is over emotion. 

5. " Scotland, Ireland, Germany, Holland, France, Swe- 
den, Denmark, and the Baltic region, contributed large 
quotas of people, and other colonial instrumentalities." 

This example contains sixteen simple clauses. Its uncontracted, 
or expanded form is, Scotland contributed large quotas of people, 
and Scotland contributed large quotas of other colonial instrumen- 
talities ; etc., of Ireland, Germany, etc. 

This example also illustrates the convenience and economy of the 
Contraction of Compound Sentences. 

9. Sometimes a Sentence is amplified or expanded by 
using one, or more words, phrases, or clauses, synonymous- 
ly, or in apposition with one of its elements. 

6. The land surface of the earth is divided into three 
parts; 5 Europe, 5 Asia 5 and Africa. 5 

In this example, Europe, Asia, Africa, are used in apposition with 
parts, and thus amplify or enlarge the expression. (See Phi. Lang., 
Amplification.) 

7. Gaul was divided into three parts ; 5 one of which was 
inhabited by the Belgians, 015 another by the Aquatanians, cl 5 
and the third by the Celts. 015 



PUNCTUATION. 135 



X. Punctuation. 

1 . Punctuation is a name given to the science and art of 
using certain Points, Signs, or Marks, in written language, as 
aids in distinguishing sentences, parts of sentences, phrases, 
or words. 1 

Note I. As far as these points enable the reader to distinguish Sen- 
tences and the character of Sentences, it is of great importance that 
they be known and observed by the reader ; but, it will not do to teach 
the student that, "These Points are only to be observed as stopping 
places for the purpose of resting the organs of speech." A good 
reader will often pause where these points are inadmissible. For, 
when the words, representing the different Logical Parts of a thought, 
are not mingled, so as to prevent it, we should make a slight pause 
between each of the Logical and, also, some of the Rhetorical Parts of 
a sentence ; as — 

1. " God — moves — in a mysterious way, 

His wonders — to perform ; 

He — plants his footsteps — in the sea, 

And rides — upon the storm." 

The dashes show that the voice pauses at places, in which no Point 
could be inserted. 

Note II. The thought or meaning of a sentence frequently depends 
on its Punctuation. A barber put up the following; — 

2. " What do you think I shave for a penny and give you 
a drink." 

As it had no Punctuation, some of his customers read it ; — 

3. " What do you think ? I shave for a penny and give 
you a drink." 

But, when a customer demanded the drink, the cunning barber read 
it;- 

1 Punctuation. {a)Uon 1 ; puvnctu, pierces, stabs. 



136 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. in. 

4. What ! do you think I shave for a penny and give you 
a drink ! 

2. The Characters, used in Punctuation, are of 
five kinds ; First, those used at the end of sentences ; 
Second, those used to show the parts, or interruptions of 
sentences; Third, those used to show contractions; 
Fourth, those used for reference ; and Fifth, those used 
for pronunciation. 

3. , First The Characters, used at the end of sen- 
tences, are the Terminal, the Interrogative, and the Ex- 
clamative Periods. 1 

4. . The Terminal Period [ . ] is used at the end of simple 
and of compound sentences, where the thought and text both end 
at the same word. 

1. "No man may put off the law of God." 

2. " Covet earnestly the best gifts, and yet show I unto 
you a more excellent way." 

5. The Interrogative Period or Interrogation 
Point [ ? ] is used in the pierce of a Terminal Period vjhen the 
sentence asks a question. 

3. " Canst thou not minister to a mind diseased ?" 

4. u How now, Tubal? What news from Genoa? Hast 
thou found my daughter ?" 

5. u Angelo. Now, what is the matter, provost? 

" Provost. Is it your will Claudio shall die to-morrow ? 
" Angelo. Did not I tell thee, yea ? Hadst thou not order ? 
Why dost thou ask again ?" 

©. The Exclamative Period or Exclamation Point [ I J 
is used in the place of the Terminal, when an emotion or a passion 
is expressed. 

6. "Can gold gain friendship? Impotence of hopel" ' 

1 Pbbiod. od, path, road ; peri — cirewm y about, around. 



PTJNOnTATTON. 137 

7. "Oh, monstrous! Oh, strange! We are haunted. 
Pray , masters ! Fly, masters ! Help!" 

7 . Second. The- Characters, used to stow the parts 
cr interruptions of sentences, are the Colon-, Semicolon, 
Comma, Quotation, Dash, Parenthesis, and Brackets, 



8. The Colon [:] is used where the text stops, while the 
thought continues. 

Note I. The Colon is used before a distinct, or formal list of par- 
ticulars, separated by Semicolons ; as, — 

1. We will consider the parts of a plant as follows: first, 
the roots ; second, the stem ; third, the foliage. * 

Note II. The Colon is used between the larger clauses of compound 
sentences, when the less clauses are separated by the semicolon ; as, — 

2. " He sunk to repose where the red heaths are blended ; 
One dream of his childhood, his fancy passed o'er: 

But his battles are fought, and his marching is ended ; 
The sound of the bagpipe shall wake him no more." 

Note III. The Colon is used between the parts of a compound -sen- 
tence, when one explains the cause, the reason, or the effect of the 
other, and the connector is omitted ; as, — 

3. Beware of idleness : it tendeth to poverty. Beware of 
idleness ; for it tendeth to poverty. 

Note IV. The above rules are given for those, who prefer to use the 
Colon; rather than because we deem it a necessary, or even a con- 
venient character in Punctuation, except it be in proportions. Of the 
many Systems of Punctuation, which we have examined, not one con- 
tains rules distinguishing the use of the Colon from that of the other 
characters ; nor do we think it possible to give such rules ; and hence, 
we agree with those who reject it altogether. 

9. The Semicolon [;] is used where the text is inter* 
rupi&2, while the idea continues or is not fully completed. 



138 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. HI. 

Note V. Those, who use the colon, teach that it is to bo placed be- 
tween sentences more remotely related ; while, the semicolon is to be 
placed between tiiose more nearly related ; so that the whole difference 
between the two is made to depend on the kind of relation between the 
sentences. Now, since this relation is entirely a matter of opinion, it 
follows, that no definite test exists, by which to determine its remote- 
ness, or nearness ; and, of course, no way to distinguish the use of the 
one from the use of the other, except by arbitrary rules. 

Note VI. The Semicolon is used before a distinct list of particulars, 
separated by commas; as, — 

4. The human race is divided into four classes ; the Euro- 
pean, the American, the Asiatic, and the African. 

Note YII. The Semicolon is used between two sentences, where 
one explains*the reason, or the effect of the other ; as, — 

5. Beware of idleness ; for it tendeth to poverty. 

If the colon be not used at all, example, 3, should be punctuated with 
the Semicolon, and example, 5, with the comma, or as it is. 

6. The name of the defendant in this action having been 
called, Mr. Jay responded as counsel, and said; — 

" May it please the court," etc. 

If it be written; — and said, " May it please — " etc., then the dash 
should be omitted ; but, when the part belonging after the afnrmer — as 
in example, 6, or, after the connector, as before example, 5, — is trans- 
ferred, the dash takes its place. 

7. "Read; not for the purpose of contradicting and con- 
futing ; nor, of believing and taking for granted ; nor, of find- 
ing material for argument and conversation ; but, in order to 
weigh and consider the thoughts of others." 

Note VIII. A Semicolon is placed between the clauses of a com- 
pound sentence, which are farther divisible by commas ; as, — 

8. " In youth we are looking forward to things, that are to 
come; in old age, we are looking backward to things, that 
are gone past ; in manhood, although we appear, indeed, to 
be more occupied in things, that are present, yet even that is 
too often absorbed in vague determinations to be vastly happy 
on some future day, when we have time." 



PUNCTUATION. 139 

Note IX. A Semicolon is used, when several sentences in the same 
period are dependent, whether contracted or uncontracted. 

9. " For to one, is given by the spirit the word of wisdom ; 
to another, the word of knowledge by the same spirit ; to 
another, faith by the same spirit," etc. 

10. " Philosopher* assert, that Nature is unlimited in her 
operations ; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; 
that knowledge will always be progressive ; and, that all fu- 
ture generations will continue to make discoveries, of which 
we have not the slightest idea." 

Example, 10, might be punctuated by using commas instead of the 
Semicolons. Some would use the colon, or the Semicolon, in examples 
like the following, in which the exclamative is manifestly the proper 
point ; — 

11. Yes ; the gentleman has dared to assert. Yes ! the, etc. 

12. No; you have judged, as I have. No ! you, etc. 

10. The Comma [, ] is used to show a break or interrup- 
tion in a sentence. 

Note X. The Comma may be understood, when no ambiguity will be 
occasioned by omitting it. Such cases are to be considered the same as 
contractions, and on the same principle. 

Note XI. In simple sentences, a comma is used after transposed 
parts ; and, after a break preceding a transposed part ; as, — 

13. Without labor, there is no excellence. 

14. To the true, virtue becomes habitual. 

In example, 13, the comma may be understood; but, not so in ex- 
ample, 14 ; lest the reader mistake true as an adjunct of virtue — true 
virtue. 

15. To the intelligent and virtuous, old age presents a 
scene of tranquil enjoyment. 

16. Vice, to the pure in heart, is never attractive. 

Note XII. A Comma should be expressed, or understood at the end 
of every clause of a compound sentence, except those requiring a 
period, a colon, or a semicolon. 



140 CONSTKTJCT1YE RHETOBIC. [CHAP. HI. 

17. "Why, for so many a year, has the poet and the phi- 
losopher wandered amid the fragments of Athens or of Rome ; 
and paused, with strange and kindling feelings, amid their 
broken columns, their mouldering temples, their deserted 
plains ? It is because their day of glory is past." 

Before the italicised connectors, Commas dfe understood. 

18. " The pride of wealth is contemptible, the pride of 
learning is pitiable, the pride of dignity is ridiculous, and the 
pride of bigotry is insupportable." 

Note XIII. A Comma should be expressed, or understood before 
and after a relative or subjoined sentence. 

19. " Civilization, which on the ivhole has never gone hack- 
ward, is new-shaped and modified by each particular people." 

20. " Simple truths, when simply explained, are more easily 
comprehended, I believe, than is commonly supposed. 

Note XIY. "When a connector, or a word beginning a sentence, is 
understood, a comma should be used, except it be a very short explan- 
atory clause. 

21. "In what school did the Washingtons, Henrys, Han- 
cocks, and Rutledges, of America, learn the principles of civil 
liberty?" 

22. "The cause, I knew not, I diligently searched out." 

23. Perfect sincerity, earnestness of manner, a thorough 
conviction of the truth he utters, extensive knowledge, sound 
sense, keen sensibility, solid judgment, a great command of 
language, a correct and graceful elocution, are some of the 
essentials of oratory, or eloquence. 

Note XY. The above directions for the use of the Comma, to- 
gether with what has been said under the other characters, and the 
exercise of some discretion on the part of the writer as to when ha 
shall insert and when omit, will enable him to use the Comma correctly. 



PUNCTUATION. 141 

11. . The Quotation [" "] is used, when a passage is 
taken from another narrator in his own words. It consists of 
two inverted commas at the beginning and two not inverted, or 

apostrophes, at the end. • 

24. Christ said, ".Suffer little children to come unto me, 
and forbid them not ; for of such is the kingdom of God. 5 ' 

25. " How sleep the brave, who sink to rest 

"With all their country's wishes bless'd." 

Note XYI. A Quotation within a Quotation is shown by using one 
inverted comma at one end and an apostrophe at the other. 

26. " Tell me not, in mournful numbers, 

1 Life is but an empty dream.' " 
• 27. Said the preacher, "My friends; impressed by this 
dispensation, we can not forbear to exclaim, ' How mysterious 
are the ways of Providence ! ' and yet, we shall one day 
rejoice in view of the wisdom, goodness, and mercy of this 
very event." 

Note XYII. When several separate paragraphs are quoted, the two 
commas are placed at the beginning of each, but the final two are 
used at'thft end of the last paragraph only. 

28. "No man can be happy who is destitute of good feel- 
ings and generous principles. 

"No man, who is indifferent to the happiness of others, can 
possess good feelings and generous principles. 

" Therefore, no man can be happy, who is indifferent to the 
happiness of others." 

Note X VIII. When merely the substance of another's remark is 
given, without giving the exact words of the author, the quotations are 
not to be used ; as — 

29. The speaker said that he believed the story to be true. 

30. The speaker said, " I believe the story to be true." 



12. The Dash [ — ] is used; first, instead of words or 
letters placed elsewhere, or omitted ; second, when a lengthy pas- 



142 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. in. 

sage is inserted between the parts of a sentence ; and third, when 
an abrupt transition occurs. 

3 1 First. He began by saying ; — 

" Can I forget that I have been branded as an outlaw?" 

32. In the village of N — s, in the state of L — , in the year 
of our Lord, 18 — . 

33. Second. "What a lesson the word, diligence, contains? 
How profitable is it for every one of us to be reminded, — as 
we are reminded, when we make ourselves aware of its deri- 
vation from diligo, to love, — that the only secret of true 
industry in our work is love of that work ! " 

34. Third. Love asks gold ; — to build a home full of de- 
lights for father, mother, wife, children, and — 

35. Lady Teazle. Nay, you know if you will be angry 
without any reason, my dear — 

Sir Peter. There, now you want to quarrel again. 
Lady T. No, I am sure I don't. But if you will be so 
peevish — 

Sir P. There, now ! who begins first ? 

Note XIX. The dash is used before an abrupt turn; as,— 

36. "The king, himself, has followed her — 

"When she has gone before." 

Note XX. The Dash is used before the repetition of a word, which 
has just been uttered; and, being repeated emphatically, is called the 
Echo; as, — 

37. Compelled by necessity — necessity, the stern parent of 
invention. 

38. Shall I think of heaven — heaven, did I say? 

Note XXI. In elocution, the Dash is sometimes used to separate 
the emphatic words ; as, — 

39. "Such are the excuses, which irreligion offers. Could 
ycu have believed that they were so empty — so unworthy— 
bo hollow — so absurd ? " 



PUNCTUATION. 143 



13. The Marks of Paeenthesis ( ) include a sentence, 
a number, or a reference to some other part of the book, not of 
sufficient importance to be made a connected part of the sentence. 

40. "You know, my dear (the words 'my dear' always 
denote the beginning of a quarrel ), that you forgot the clock ?" 

41. " The play, I remember, pleased not the million ; 'twas 
caviare to the general ; but, it was (as I received it, and 
others, whose judgment, in such matters, cried at the top of 
mine) an excellent play; — " 

Note XXII. A Parenthesis, inclosing an interrogative period, 
throws doubt on a preceding statement; as, — 

42 He gives out that he is a son of a nobleman (?), and 
is daily expecting a remittance from home. It may be so (?). 

Note XXIII. A Parenthesis, inclosing an exclamative period, de- 
notes irony, or contempt; as, — 

43. These fellows are reformers (!), philanthropists (!), so 
are the evil spirits of Pandemonium, and in very much the 
same way. 

44. Yet Brutus says, he was ambitious ; and sure, Brutus 
is an honorable man (!). 

14. The Brackets [] are used to inclose an explana- 
tion, or the correction of mistakes made by an author, from whom 
we are quoting; the pronunciations of words; the dates of 
events ; and, frequently, for tlie same purpose as the marks of 
parenthesis. 

45. "The lover shall not sigh gratis; the humorous man 
shall end his part in peace; [the clown shall make those 
laugh, whose lungs are tickled o' the sere;] and tie lady 
shall say her mind freely ;" — [Hamlet. 



144 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. HI. 

46. In this year [A.pril, 1775], was fought the battle of 

Lexington. 

47. This series of names present [presents] no new ones. 

48. " In the bivouac [bee-voo-ak] of life." 

49. Queen. What wilt thou do ? thou wilt not murder me? 
Help, help, ho ! 

Polonius. [Behind.'] Wha^ ho ! help ! 

Hamlet. How, now ! a rat ? [Draws.] Dead for a ducat, 
dead. [Makes a pass through the screen.] 

Note XXIY. The marks of Parenthesis are used by some instead 
of the brackets ; either is correct. 

15. Third. The Characters, used to show abbrevia- 
tions or contractions, are the Contractive Period, the 
Apostrophe, the Ditto Marks, the Hyphen, the Brace, the 
Ellipsis, the Leaders, and the Caret. 

16. The Contractive Period is used where the first part 

of the word stands for the whole of the word. 

1. " And the earth was without form and void." Gen. c. 
L, v. 2. 

Note I. Sometimes a dash may be used instead of the Contractive 
Period. 



1 7 . The Apostrophe [ ' ] is used where letters are omitted 
at the beginning, or from the middle of a word, and in the ter* 
minations of some adjuncts. 

2. 'Twill glide o'er the waters. 

3. I'll meet thee in the dungeon's gloom. 

4. I saw Henry's table at the Mechanics' Institute. 

Note II. The Apostrophe is used where more than one letter, sign, 
or symbol is meant ; as, — ; 

5. In the word, mississippi, we find one m, four i's, four 
s's, and two p's. 



PUNCTUATION. 145 

6. In 66 + 666 fo— 1 — 1 11, we find six 6's, two-f % two 

— 's, and four l's. 

7. Dot your i% cross your t's, and make your A's, V's, 

N's, M's, and ¥'s distinct. 

18. The Ditto Marks or Double Commas [ "] are two 
inverted commas, placed under a word, to show that it is to he 
repeated. 

8. 10 mills make 1 cent. 
100 " " 1 dime. 



19. The Hyphen [-] is used to show that the parts, her 

(ween which it stands, are to be taken togetlier. 

9. The pastry-cook, the clock-maker, and the washer- 
woman were over-looking the affairs of the organ-grinder. 

Note III. The Hyphen is used to show the composition, and the 
syllabication of word3 ; as, — 

10. Ab-sti-nence is compounded from Abs-tin-ence. 

Note IY. The Hyphen is used, in its general sense, to join the 
parts of a word found in two lines. 

Note Y. The Hyphen is used to show peculiar pronunciations ; as, — 

11. " S-o-l-o-m-o-n is a perpetual calm ; should the children, 
in their play, knock over the tea-table and its contents, he 
looks quietly up from his book, and drawls out, * A-i-n-t y-o-u 
r-a-t-h-e-r n-o-i-s-y, c-h-i-1-d-r-e-n ? ' " 

Note VI. Sometimes, the Hyphen is used to distinguish words ; as, — 

12. Recreation, amusement; re-creation, to make again* 

13. White pine boards must be made from the white pine; 
but white pine-boards may be made from any kind of pine. 

14. Are these, White-pond water-lilies, or white pond- 
water lilies, or white-pond-water lilies ? # 

7 



146 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. IH. 



20. The Brace [/-^^^] is used to join several distinct 
parts to i ne common part 

15. 1,000 mills ) 10,000 mills ) ( £D. E. 

100 cents V equal $1. 1,000 cents V are i IE. 
10 dimes) 100 dimes ) ($10. 

Note YIL The principle of contraction, by which we use the Brace 
in the tables, is the same as that, by which we contract compound 
sentences. 

' man. 



16. John 
Ann 



1 clothed and fed the poor ) woman. 

' ( child. 

2 1 • The Marks of Ellipsis [* * * or . . . ] are used to 
show the omission of letters, words, sentences, paragraphs, chap- 
ters, etc. 

Note YIII. Usually, when the marks are used to show an omission 
of letters, a point is used for each omitted letter ; or, we may use the 
dash. 

1Y a **** e w ******** ny j i P m , and B— n 

F— n. 

18. u Brutus. [Opens the letter, and reads."] l Brutus, thou 
sleep 1 st; awake, and see thyself. Shall Borne, &c. Speak, 
strike, redress! Brutus, thou sleep 1 st ; awake. 1 **** [To him- 
self— ~\ Such instigations have often been dropped where I 
have took [taken] them up. Shall Rome, &c. Thus must I 
piece it out ; shall Kome stand under one man's awe ? What I 
Eome ? " 

33. Leaders [ ] are dotted lines, used to connect 

words, at the beginning, with others at the end of the same lines. 

19. Punctuation page 154. 

Characters used at the end, etc. ... " 155. 

" " " " breaks .... * 156. 



PUNCTUATION. 147 

23. The Caret [ A ] is used, in manuscript, to show the 

place of omitted words or letters. 
r to 

20. c/ wit& this note you. 

24. Fourth. The Characters, used for reference, are 
the Emphasis- Marks, the Division- Marks, and what are 
usually called the Reference- Marks. 

25. The EMPHAsis-ifar&s are the Hand or Index 
[OUT*], *Ae Asterisks or Stars [***], and the Nota Bene 
[N.B.]. They are used to direct, or to refer the reader to some 
special paragraphs. 

Note IX. The term, Emphasis, as here used, is improperly applied. 
These signs have nothing to do with emphatic words, as described in 
the Syntax of Sentences. 

1- UST 3 For sale, at a Bargain — All my real estate. 
2. *,£* " A retired clergyman, whose sands of life have 
nearly run out." 

26. The Division- Marks are the Paragraph [1], and 
the Section [§]. They enable us to refer to different parts of a 
book. Formerly, both were used much more than at present. 



Note X. The term, Paragraph, was applied to a title, placed in the 
margin to distinguish paragraphs, before they were written separately, 
as now. 

3. <; •([ Avoid all needless repetitions of the same Repetition, 
thing in different parts of the discourse. % Avoid all need- 
less prolixity in one part to the neglect, or too rapid Proibaiy. 
disposal of, perhaps, more important parts, ^f Avoid Mulfci 
plying explications where there is no difficulty, nor Exr ,lic a- 
darkness, nor danger of mistake." 



148 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. HI. 

Note XI. The Section includes one, or more paragraphs, when they 
pertain to the same part. The Sections in this work are shown by the 
bold-faced figures, 1, 2, 3, etc. ; the examples and remarks are the 
paragraphs. 



ST. The Reference -Marks are used to refer the reader to 
a note in the side, or at the foot of a 'page. 

28. Keference Marks are divided into Superior* 
Marks, and Inferior-M&iks. 

29. The Superior- Marks are placed with the word con" 

cerning which the reference is made. They are either the letters, 
a, b, c, d, etc., or the figures, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., placed at the end, 
and near the upper part of the word. 



30. The Inferior- Marks are placed at the left of the 
notes to yjhich the reference is made. They are the same as the 
letters, or figures, used as Superiors. 

Note XII. When only a few notes are given, we use the following 
Bix signs in the order, in which they are here given ; — 



1. Asterisk, or Star * 

2. Obelisk, or Dagger f 

3. Double Dagger j 



4. Section § 

5. Parallel |. 

6. Paragraph . . . ^ 



Note XIII. When more than six references are required, some 
double or treble those given above ; as, ** f f f , etc. 

31. Fifth. The Punctuations, used in pronunciation, > 
are the Accent-Marks, the Quantity-M.&i:ks, the Dioereszs % 
und the Cedilla. 



PUNCTUATION. 149 

33. The AccENT-2far&s are used to show that a peculiar 
force or stress of the voice is to be given to the syllables over 
which they are placed. 

Note I. Accent is, to the syllable in a word, what Emphasis ia 
to a word in a sentence. 

33. Accent-Marks are of three kinds; the Acute, 
the Grave, and the Circumflex. 



34:. The Acute Accent ['] denotes a rising inflection of 
the voice. 

As, an'archy, antip'athy, anticipation. 

Note II. The Acute Accent, at the end of a clause, shows that the 
voice rises. 

4. See, who comes here' ? My countryman' — but yet I 
know him not'. Horatio, or I do forget myself. 



35. The Grave Accent [ A ] denotes the falling inflection. 

As, An'archy \ antip'athy*. 

5. On Linden, when the sun was low\ 
All bloodless lay the untrodden snow\ 
And dark as winter was the flow 

Of Iser rolling rapidly \ 

Note III. The Grave Accent is sometimes placed over <s, in the suf- 
fix of an adjunct word, to show that it must be pronounced ; as, — 

6. Beloved, these things write I to you. 



36. The Circumflex Accent [ A or "" ] denotes an upwara\ 
followed by a downward inflection of the voice. 



150 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. HI. 

7. Eternity, thou pleasing, dreadful thought. 

Note IY. Sometimes the circumflex is used to distinguish a pecu- 
liar sound of the vowel, over which it is placed; as in fall, full, etc. 

Note Y. The accent is sometimes used to distinguish words having 
like parts ; as, — 

8. The indorser, either Erectly, or indirectly, shall pay to 
the indorsee. This is so far from being wjustice, that it is 
real justice. 



37. Quantity Marks are of three kinds; the Long 
or Macron, the Short or Breve, and the Doubtful. 

38. J r te Long Mark or Macron [-] is placed over a 
long vowel. 

As, in the? words, fate, me, pine, no, tube. 

39. The Short Mark or BreYe [ v ] is placed over a short 
vowel. 

As, in the words, fat, met, pin, not, tub. 

40. The Doubtful Mark [ c ] is placed over a vowel, 

which may be long, or short. 

As, in the words, wind, demonstrate, etc. 

41 . The Diuresis [••] is placed over the latter of two 
adjoining vowels, to show that it does not form a diphthong with 
the former. 

As, in the words> aerial, zoology, etc. 



PUNCTUATION, 151 

Lit. Def. The word, ce-diV-la, means belonging to that which softens, 

4:2. The Cedilla [ 5 ] is a mark used in French words 
under the letter, c, before A, or o, to give it the sound of s. 

As in the word, facade, pronounced fas-dde; macon^ pronounced 
mason. 

N.B. — Should the teacher desire to exercise the class in Punc- 
tuation, let some one read a passage aloud, to be written and 
punctuated by the student; then, let these exercises be examined 
very carefully and the necessary comments be made. Do not as- 
sume that all the punctuations, found in the books, are correct 
Indeed, no supposition could be more- absurd than this ; since, the 
most of writers leave the Punctuation to the "compositor," as the 
type-setter is technically called. Therefore, whatever booh is used, 
examine it, as to its punctuation, as well as the exercises of the 
students. 

Many doubtful cases will, of course, be found. In these cases, the 
Punctuation must be a matter of taste. 

The teacher should be provided with a copy of "Wilson's 
Treatise on Punctuation,'' 1 which, in our judgment, is the best 
work on this subject, yet published. 

Exercises in Punctuation. 
Let the student copy, and punctuate the following examples. 

1. I am monarch of all I survey my right there is none to 
dispute from the center all round to the sea I am lord of the 
fowl and the brute solitude where are the charms that sages 
have seen in thy face 'tis better to dwell in the midst of alarms 
than to reign in this horrible place 

2. The Lord is my shepherd I shall not want he maketh me 
to lie down in green pastures he leadeth me beside the still 
waters he restoreth my soul he leadeth me in the paths of 
righteousness for his names sake yea though I walk through 
the valley of the shadow of death I will fear no evil for thou 
art with me thy rod and thy staff they comfort me thou pre- 
parest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies 



152 CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC. [CHAP. HI. 

thou anointest my head with oil my cup runneth over surely 
goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life 
and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever. 

3. The earth is the Lords and the fulness thereof the world 
and they that dwell therein for he hath founded it upon the 
seas and established it upon the floods who shall ascend into 
the hill of the Lord or who shall stand in his holy place he 
that hath clean hands and a pure heart who hath not lifted up 
his soul unto vanity nor sworn deceitfully he shall receive the 
blessing from the Lord and righteousness from the God of his 
salvation this is the generation of them that seek him that 
seek thy face O Jacob selah lift up your heads ye gates and 
be ye lifted up ye everlasting doors and the King of glory 
shall come in who is this King of glory the Lord strong and 
mighty the Lord mighty in battle lift up your heads O ye gates 
even lift them up ye everlasting doors and the King of glory 
shall come in who is this King of glory the Lord of hosts he is 
the King of glory selah. 

Erroneous Punctuation, to he corrected. 

1. On Linden when, the sun was low all trackless lay, the 
untrodden snow and dark, as winter was, the flow ; of Iser, 
rolling rapidly ? 

2. The harp, the monarch, minstrel swept; the king of men 
the loved of. Heaven that music hallowed : while she wept, 
o'er tones her heart of hearts had given ! Redoubled be, her 
tears its cords, are riven. 

3. Was it not? pitiful near a whole city full, of homes she 
had none ; 

4. Miss Jone's compliments to the Misses Brown ; requests 
the Misses Brown's company this evening, to teal 

5. The raven (never flitting) still; is sitting still; [is 
sitting on] ; the pallid bust of Pallas, just above my chamber 
door, 



CHAPTEE IY.— Grammar. 

Outline. The Science of Grammar includes ; — 

I. The Definitions ; 

IL Etymology and Grammatical Syntax ; 
IH. Orthoepy and Orthography of Language. 

I. Definitions. 

1 . Geammas is the name given to that part of the Science 
of Language, which includes ; first, the Classification of the ele- 
ments of sentences according to their Uses or Offices, and; second, 
the Sounds and the Letters which are used as the elements of 
words. (See Chap. L, p. 49.) 

Literal Definition. The word, grammar, means "belonging to 
elements , grains, sands, letters. 

Analysis. Gkammae. (m)ar = al, that which, belonging to ; gram, 
grain, letters, sand. (See Diet., gramme, grain, literal, littoral ; also, 
Chap. IV., Letters.) 

Note I. The narrator's grammatical use of thought language is 
synthetic ; because, he must give to each word, phrase, or sentence, 
some means for showing to the narratee, its logical, its rhetorical, 
and its grammatical attributes or properties, whenever it is neces- 
sary that these should be made known. He must, also, speak or 
write each expression correctly. 

The narratee's grammatical use of thought language is analytic ; 
because, he must take each expression as it comes from then arrator 
and, by the aid of its construction and modifications, find its gram- 
matical, its rhetorical and its logical uses ; and, also, must learn to 
hear and to read the language correctly. 

It is worthy of notice, that the relations of the narrator and of the 
narratee to the narration are as follows ; — 

The narrator is ; first, a Logician ; second, a Rhetorician, and, third, 
a Grammarian. 

The narratee is ; first a Grammarian ; second, a Rhetorician, and, 
third, a Logician. 

7* (153) 



154: GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

JX The Parts or Divisions of Grammar. 

2. Grammar is divided into two parts; Part I., Etymo- 
logy and Syntax and Part II., Orthoepy and Orthography. 

Part I. Etymology and Syntax. 

3. Etymology is the name given to that part of Grammar 
which includes the classifications of the elements of sentences 
according to their uses or offices, or " The Parts of Speech" 
and what belongs to each of these Classes or Parts of Speech. 

Lit. Def. The word, etymology, means belonging to the science of 
the origin , or source [of things']. 

Analysis. Etymology. y = e, ; (o)log, science, reason ; etym, 

origin, source, truth. 

4. The Names or Terms. The Names or Terms, used in 
Etymology, are, Attribute or Property, Modification, Table, 
Regular and Irregular Words, Defective and Redundant 
Words, Variable Words, and Parsing. 

5. Attributes or Properties are names given to what each 
Class or Part of Speech derives from its Logical, its Rhetorical, 
or its Grammatical use. (See Attributes of Nouns, Pronouns, 
etc.) 

Lit. Def. The word, attribute, means that which has been given to 
[something]. 

The word, property, means that which belongs to [something']. 

Anal. Attribute, e, belonging to ; t, ; tribu, has been given ; 

at=ad, to [somethiDg]. 

Property. y=*=e, ; t, ; near to, proper, peculiar, real. 

6. Attributes or Properties are divided into three kinds; 
Logical, Rhetorical and Grammatical Attributes. 

*} . A Logical Attribute or Property is one which a Part 
of Speech derives from its meaning or ideal. 

Thus, the Gender, Person and Number of a Noun are known by 
its meaning, hence they are Logical Attributes or Properties of the 
Noun. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 155 

8. A Khetokical Attribute or Property is one which a Pali, 
of Speech derives from its use or office in a sentence. 

Thus, the Case of a Noun is known by the use or office of a Noun. 

9. A Grammatical Attribute or Property is one which a 
Part of Speech derives from the elements which form the 
word. 

Thus, the regularity of a Verb is derived from the manner in 
which the Verb is spelled. 

10. Modifications are forms or changes of roots, of suf 
fixes, or of prefixes, and are used to show either the rela- 
tions, or the attributes of the modified elements, and also for 
Euphony. (See Kelations of Elements.) 

Lit. Def. The word, modification, means the science of making 
forms or shapes ; and, also, the form or shape itself. 

Thus, man, men ; horse, horses ; export, import ; wife, wives. 

Anal. Modification, ation, ; (i)fic, has been made ; mod, 

mode, form, figure. 

Thus, donor, donee ; boy, boys ; man, woman ; duke, duchess ; 
John's hat ; this man, these men. 

Note I. In written, or printed language, the suffix is sometimes 
separated from its root ; as, my own for myown. 

Note II. The English language is remarkable, because it is so 
free from many of those Modifications of words which are found in 
other languages, and are used merely to show the attributes or 
properties of words ; hence, by many it is called an "Anomalous 
Language ;" by a few, u a Grammarless Tongue." A careful study 
of the grammatical attributes or properties of its words and the 
means by which these are made known, reveals the gratifying facts ; 
first, that the English language has all the Modifications really 
needful to show the attributes or properties of its words and, per- 
haps, a few more than are needed by thinkers ; second, it also shows 
that the prevailing idea of the English language is, that the attri- 
butes or properties of words shall be shown by the meanings of the 
words and by their positions in sentences, rather than by the Modi- 
fications of the words themselves. Whoever studies the English 
language carefully, must be convinced that it is, pre-eminently, the 
language of the thinker and that, in this respect, it is most admir- 
ably adapted to become "The Universal Language," a mission which 
it seems destined to fulfil. It is, indeed, in its Grammar, the most 
philosophical language, which is spoken by the human lip, or writ- 
ten by the human hand. 



156 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

11. Table is a term applied to an arrangement, showing 
the different modifications of a word, of a phrase, or of a sen- 
tence. 

Lit. Def. The word, table, means something arranged, classed, 
set in order. 

Anal. Table, e, something ; tabl, class, rank, order. (See Diet., 
tabulate.) 

12. A Regular Word is one which is used according to 
some general rule, or table. 

13. An Irregular Word is one which is not used accord- 
ing to some general rule, or table. 

Lit. Def. The word, regular, means according to some rule. 
Anal. Regular, ar, use, office ; regul, rule, law, order ; ir, not. 

14. A Defective Word is one which lacks some of the 
modifications belonging to other words of its own kind or class. 
(See Defective Nouns, Pronouns, etc.) 

Lit. Def. The word, defective, means like that which has been 
taken away. 
Anal. Defective, tive, ; fee =fic, has been taken ; de, from. 

15.-4 Redundant Word is one which has two or more 
modifications to show the same attributes ; or, that has two or 
more meanings. 

Lit. Def. The word, redundant, means that which flows back. 

Anal. Redundant, ant, something, belonging to ; (d)und, flows, 
waves ; re, back again. 

Note III. A word, having two or more modifications for the same 
meaning, is said to be Redundant in Form ; a word, having two or 
more meanings, is said to be Redundant in Meaning. 

Thus, phenomenons, phenomena, are redundant forms of phenome- 
non. Brothers (members of the same family), and brethren (mem- 
bers of the same society), are redundant both in* form and in mean* 
ing. 

16. A Variable Word is one which is sometimes used in 
one form or meaning, and sometimes in another form or 
meaning. 

Lit. Def. The word, variable, means may be changed. 



CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 157 

Anal. Variable, (ictfile, may, can ; tar, change, turn. 

Thus, demonstrate, demon 'strate ; pretension, pretention ; broth- 
ers, brethren, etc. 

Dem'onstrate is variable in accentuation ; preten'sion is variable 
in spelling ; brothers and brethren are variable in meaning, they are 
pluraJ forms of brother, etc. 

17* TJie term, Parsing, is used to name the operation or 
process of finding the class or Part of Speech to which an 
element of a sentence belongs, and of finding the attributes or 
^properties belonging to that element (See Analyses of Nouns, 
Pronouns, etc.) 

Grammatical Syntax. 

1 8 • Grammatical Syntax is the name given to that part 
of Grammar, which prescribes or directs the means by which 
the attributes or properties of each Part of Speech must be 
shown by the Narrator and learned by the Narratee. 

The Etymological Classification of the Elements of Sen- 
tences; or, the "Parts of Speech." 

19. The Elements of Sentences, according to their uses 
or offices in Sentences, are divided into eight classes, com- 
monly called "The Parts of Speech;" namely; — I., Nouns; 
IL, Pronouns; HL, Adjectives ; IV., Verbs ; V., Adverbs; VI., 
Prepositions; VII., Conjunctions and, VIII., Exclamations. 

Note I. Some grammarians have nine, while others have ten 
" Parts of Speech." The ninth class is formed by calling the two 
adjunct words, a or an, and the, Articles. The tenth "Part of 
Speech" is formed by calling the different Tenses of the Participial 
Mode, Participles. 

According to this mode of forming classes, an almost indefinite 
number of " Parts of Speech" might be formed. 

Note 11. The classification of words, according to their uses or 
offices, is sometimes called " The Grammatical Classification of 
Words," which would be a good term if no other classification were 
found in grammar. Properly it is called the Etymological Classifi- 
cation of Words ; or, the Et-y-mol-o-gic Classification of Words. 



158 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV 

Note III. The following Table, if read from left to right, shows 
what the rhetorical use of a word requires it to be called, in gram- 
mar, thus ; the Subject of a Sentence is called a Subject Noun in 
grammar. The Predicate or Affirmer of a Subject is a Verb in 
grammar. The first Object of a Predicate becomes a First Objec* 
Noun in grammar ; etc. 



Table. Rhetoric to Grammar. 

Rhetorical Uoos or Offices in Sentences. Etymological Claeeei ir the Parts of Speech* 

1. The Subject of a sentence is called a Subject Nouiq in gram. 

2. The Predicate of a subject " Verb " 

3 The 1st Object of a predicate " 1st Object Noun " 

4 The Relator l< Prepositi dn " 

5 The 2d Object of a predicate " 2d Object Noun " 

6 I. An Adjunct related by of 

or by apostrophe " Adjunct Noun " 

II. An Adjunct of & noun not 

related by of nor by apos. is called an Adjective in gram. 

III. An Adjunct of a word, 

which is not a noun " Adverb " 

7. The Personator of a name or 

expression " Pronoun " 

8. The Connector of a clause * Conjunction * 

9. An Exclamatwe " Exclamation " 

Note IV. The following Table shows the sentential Use or Office 
according to which each Part of Speech or Etymologic Class of 
Words is made. 

It should be read thus ; — 

A Noun is a word, a phrase, or a clause, rhetorically used as a 
Subject, as an Object, or as an Adjunct, related to its principal, by 
of or by an apostrophe. 

A Pronoun is a word, or a phrase, rhetorically used as the person 
ator of a Noun, etc., etc. 



TABLE GRAMMAR TO RHETORIC. 159 

Table. Grammar to Rhetoric. 

Etymological Classes or the Parts of Speech. Rhetorical Uses or Offices in Sentences. 

1. A Noun (word, phrase or clause) a Subject, an Object, or an Adjunct 

related by of, or by an apos. 

2. A Pbonoun (word or phrase) a Personator. 

3. An Adjective (w., ph., cl.) an Adjunct of a Noun not related 

by of, or by an apostrophe. 

4. A Verb (word or phrase) a Predicate or Affirmer. 

5. An Adyebb (w., ph., cl.) an Adjunct not of a Noun. 

6. A Preposition (w.) a Relator. 

7. A Conjunction (w., ph.) a Connector. 

8. An Exclamation (w., ph. cl.) an Exclamative. 

Direction. After some exercise in numbering the words of ex- 
amples, written on the black-board and on slates, under the inspec- 
tion of the teacher, the students should be directed while studying 
the Noun, to copy each example and to number its words. The 
left hand figure, or figures, must be used to show the use or office 
of the word, while the right hand figure shows the Part of Speech 
or Etymological class to which the word belongs, thus ; — 

Examples. 

1. Men should build their houses on foundations of 
solid rock. 

This example, when written and numbered, should appear as 
follows ; — 

Men 11 should build 2 P 4 their 762 houses 31 on 46 foundations 51 of 46 solid 65 
rock 61 . F S T. 

Translation. The formula, F 8 T, shows that logically, this ex- 
ample is a simple thought of three parts ; rhetorically, F S T shows 
that this example is a simple sentence actively constructed. Its 
principal words are men build houses. Its adjunctive elements should 
foundations, solid stone ; its personator, their ; its relators, on, of. 
Men*, subject word noun; should build 2 ? 4 , — 2p; phrase predicate* 
p4, phrase verb ; their 152 , 76, personator of the adjunct men's ; 2, pro- 
noun; houses? 1 , first object word noun, etc. 



160 GBAMMAB. [CHAP. IV. 



I Nouns. 

The science of the Noun includes; first, the 
Definitions ; second, the Classifications ; third, the Attri- 
butes or Properties, and the Means of making them 
known ; fourth, the Declension ; and fifth, the Syntax 
of the Noun. 

1 • First, the Definitions. A Noun is a word, a phrase, or 
a clause, which, in a sentence, has the use or office of a subject, 
of an object, or of an adjunct, related to its principal by of, or 
by an apostrophe. 

Note I. Some grammarians classify as Nouns, adjuncts related to 
Nouns by a relator; while, they classify as Adjectives, the same ad- 
juncts having the same principal word, where the relator is not used. 

Thus, the word, mountain, after the relator, of, in the following, is 
called a Noun ; in its other uses, an Adjective. 

There is the top of a mountain, or a mountains top, or a mountain- 
top, or a mountain top ; in which the words, mountain, mountain's have 
the same meaning, and the same rhetorical use. 

Students, who prefer not to classify adjuncts as Nouns, should omit 
that part of the definition which follows the word, " object 11 These 
will have no occasion for a Possessive, and. very little for a G-enitive 
Case. 

Examples. 

1. The father gave the land to hfs son, but the soris part 
of the land was less than his father's. 

General Analysis. FST + FS + Fs. 

Grammatk al Analysis or Parsing. Father is a noun ; because, it is 
a word, which has the use or office of a subject, in the sentence, the father 
gave, etc. 

Land is a noun ; because, it is a word, which has the use or office of 
an object. It is the first object of the predicate, gave. 



PROPER NOUNS. 161 

Son is a word noun ; because, it has the use or office of an object 
It is a second object of the predicate, gave. 

Son's is a word noun ; because, it has the use or office of an adjunct 
Its relation to its principal, land, is shown by an apostrophe. 

Part is a word noun 

Land [of land] is a word noun ; because, it has the use or office of 
an adjunct, whose relation to its principal, part, is shown by the re- 
lator, of. 

Father's [father's part of land] is a word noun; because, etc. 

2. " The rose of Sharon " is a beautiful plant. 

Parsing. The rose of Sharon is a phrase noun; because, in this 
sentence it is a phrase, which has the use or office of a subject 

3. Did you call this plant, " The rose of Sharon?" 

4. Do you know the tune of " Old Hundred?" 

Parsing. " Old Hundred" is a phrase noun ; because it is an adjunct 
phrase, whose relation to its principal is shown by the relator, of 

5. The assembly shouted, * The people are triumphant" 

Parsing. " The people are triumphant" is a clause noun; because, in 
this sentence, it is a clause having the use or office of an object. 

Classifications of Nouns. 
2» Second, the Classifications. Nouns are clas- 
sified according to two bases ; first, according to their 
signification ; second, according to their uses or offices in 
sentences. 

3. First Classification. According to their signifi- 
cations, Nouns are divided into two kinds ; Proper, and 
Common. 

Proper Nouns. 

4. A Proper Noun is a noun which distinguishes ewe or 
more of a class from all others of the same class or kind. 

Examples, 
1. Schuyler was superseded by Gates in June. 

Parsing. Schuyler is a proper word Noun ; because, it distinguishet 
one individual frorn all others of the same class (men). 



162 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

2. The Alleghanies form a part of the Appalachian Sys 
tern of mountains. 

3. The Americans are distinguished for enterprise. 

Note I. ' A Proper Noun, used to distinguish a member of a family, 
is called the Given Name or the Christian Name. 

4. George Washington commanded the American armies. 

Parsing. George is a proper given or Christian name. It is a given 
or Christian name ; because, it distinguishes one Washington from all 
other Washingtons. 

5. Friday, the twenty-fifth day of December, was Christ 
mas, and the next Friday, the first day of January, was New 
Year's day. Thanksgiving was on Thursday, and the Fourth 
(day) of July came on Sunday. 

6. Washington's birth-day was celebrated on Monday, Feb. 
22, 1858. The procession of citizen-soldiers passed through 
Broadway, Fourteenth Street, Fourth Avenue, Bowery, 
Chatham Street, and Park Row ; and was reviewed in the 
City Hall Park. 

Common Nouns. 

5. A Common Noun is a noun which may he used to namt 
the whole of a class or kind and, also, each individual of thai 
class or kind. 

7. The pupils of this school recite in classes, and each pupil 
strives to become the best student in the class. 

Parsing. Pupil is a common word Noun. It is common, because, 
it may be used to name the whole class (pupils) and, also, any individual 
in that class (pupil). 

8. Each orator, hero, and statesman of former times has been 
the type of our modern orators, heroes, and statesmen. 

Note II. A Noun, signifying one's country or nation, is called a 
Patriot Noun; signifying one's race, a Gentile or Generic Noun: 

6. Second Classification of Nouns. According to 
their uses or offices in sentences, Nouns are divided into 
four Jkinds ; Subject Nouns, Object Nouns, Adjunct 
Nouns, and Eooclamative or Appellative Nouns. 



OBJECT NOUS'S. 163 

Subject Nouns. 

I 7. A Subject Noun is a word, a phrase, or a clause, 
used as the subject of a sentence. 

Note I. In the examination of a Subject Noun, the student should 
notice whether it is the Subject Noun of an independent, or of a de- 
pendent sentence. Generally, this fact should be stated. 

Examples. 

1. James sent a trusty messenger with the message. 

Parsing. James is a subject proper word Noun. It is a subject 
Noun, because, it is the subject of a sentence. 

2. The Star -spangled Banner was suog by all. 

Special Analysis. TJie Star-spangled Banner is a subject common 
phrase Noun. It is a subject Noun, because it is used as the subject 
of a sentence. 

3. "Mind your business " is stamped in raised letters on 

T 

one side of this coin, -x-^-^ S f. 

IB 1 

Parsing. " Mind your business" is a subject common clause Noun. 
It is a subject Noun, because, etc. 

4. " Travellers are invited to call here" was inscribed over 
the door. 

Object Nouns. 

8# An Object Noun is a word, a phrase, or a clause, used 
as an object of an affirmer. 

5. He giveth food to the poor. 

Parsing. Food is an object common word Noun. It is an object 
Noun, because it is used as an object in a sentence. 

Note II. Sometimes, Nouns should be distinguished as First Object 
Nouns, and as Second Object Nouns. Thus, in the previous example, 
food is a first object Noun ; poor is a second object Noun. 

6. The assembly sang " The Star- Spangled Banner." 

Parsing. The Star- Spangled Banner is a first object Noun, because 
it is a phrase used as a first object in a sentence. 

7. We ended our musical entertainment with "Auld Lang 
Syne." 



164 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

Parsing. Auld Lang Syne is a second object common phrase Noun. 
It is a second object Noun, because it is a phrase used as a second object 
in a sentence. 

8. The passenger desired the captain to stop the boat. 

9. The daughter's affection for her father was shown by he* 
providing for his comfort 

Adjunct Novels. 

9. An Adjunct Noun is an adjunct word, phrase, or 

clause. 

10. The mother's care of her daughter's happiness was em- 
ulated by the daughter in caring for the happiness of her 
mother. 

Parsing. Mother's is an adjunct common word Noun. It is an ad 
junct Noun, because it is a word, used in a sentence, as an adjunct. 

Daughter's is an adjunct Noun, because, etc. 

Happiness [of happiness] is an adjunct common word Noun. It is 
an adjunct Noun, because, etc. 

11. Who was the author of " The Star-spangled Banner $ 

Parsing. The Star-spangled Banner is an adjunct proper phrase 
Noun. It is an adjunct Noun, because it is a phrase, used in the sen- 
tence, as an adjunct of author, to which its relation is shown bj of. 

12 "What are the chances of your brother's recovering his 
property f 

Your brother's recovering his property is an adjunct common clause 
Noun. It is an adjunct Noun, because it is used as an adjunct of its 
principal word, chances. 

Exclamative or Appellative Nouns. 



lO. An Exclamative or Appellative Noun is one which 
is used in a sentence either as an exclamative, or as the name of 
a person addressed. 

13. Roger, come here, sir. 

Parsing. Roger is an appellative proper word Noun. It is an 
appellative Noun, because it is the name of the narratee. 



ATTRIBUTES OF NOUNS. 165 

14. Would I had died for thee, Absalom, my Son ! my 

Son! 

Absalom is an exclamative proper word Noun. It is an exclamative 
Noun, because, etc. 

15. Virtue ! how amiable thou art. 

16. The wounded man exclaimed, u I am hurt ! I am dying." 

17. A Daniel ! A Daniel come to judgment! I thank 
thee, Jew, for teaching me that word. 

To the Student. The following Notes are inserted, because they 
explain terras which are frequently used by the grammarians. Scien- 
tifically considered, they are absurdities. 

Note III. Nouns, naming things, which have a sensible existence 
or are material, are sometimes called Nouns Substantive or Substantive 
Nouns, or simply Substantives. 

18. John struck the horse with a whip. 

John is a subject Noun; horse and whip are object Nouns, each 
naming an idea of a material thing or object ; hence, they are called 
substantive Nouns or substantives. 

Note IY. Nouns, naming the qualities or properties of things, are 
sometimes called Nouns Adjective or Adjective Nouns. 

19. Neatness, conciseness, and directness are the essentials of 
strength and clearness in style. 

Note Y. When the affi.rm.er only of a contracted sentence is used 
as a subject or as an object, it is sometimes called a Verbal Noun. If 
the affirmer end in ing, it is called a Participial Yerbal Noun. 

20. To err, is human, to forgive, divine. 

21. Failing is oftener the result of doubting, than of attempt* 
ing the performance of difficulties. 

Note YI. Adjective and Yerbal Nouns are called Abstract Nouns. 

22. Faith, hope, and charity are Christian graces. 

The Attributes or Properties of Nouns. 

11. Third, the Attributes of Nouns, and the Means 
of Knowing them. Nouns have four Attributes or 
Properties ; called, Gender, Person, Number, and Case. 



166 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV, 



Gender. 

13. Gender is a logical attribute or property, which Out 
noun derives from the presence or absence of sex in that which 
the noun names. 

Note I. Probably the term, Gender, was originally applied to an 
idea subordinate to all principal ideas of material objects. This sub- 
ordinate idea is that every material thing belongs either to the Ani- 
mates, animals, plants, or to the Inanimates, minerals, etc. If it belong 
to the Animates, it must also belong either to the male sex, or to the 
female sex ; if to the Inanimates, it belongs to neither sex ; hence, 
that attribute or property of a Noun, by which it signifies the source 
or origin of its ideal, is very properly called the Gender of the Noun. 

Gender includes " distinction of sex," and more than this ; just as 
the origin of all created objects includes more than the origin of any 
class of created objects ; so that the term, Gender, has a larger signifi- 
cation than the term, Sex, which, literally, means cut, or divided, and 
should be used in Grammar as a name for the two sections or sexes, 
male, female, into which Animate beings are naturally divided. 

13. Nouns have four kinds of Gender; namely, 
Masculine, Feminine, Common, and Neuter. 

14. The Masculine Gender is attributed to nouns which 

are names of males. 

15. The Feminine Gender is attributed to nouns which are 
names of females. 

Examples. 

1. That man and that woman may be a husband and his 
wife, a brother and his sister, & father and his daughter, an uncU 
and his niece, a nephew and his aunt, an actor and an actress } 
a lord and a lady, a duke and a duchess, or a beau and a belle. 



GENDERS OF KOTOS. 167 

Grammatical Analysis. Man is a subject common Noun. It haa 
the logical attribute, masculine G-ender ; because, it names a male. 

Woman is a subject common Noun. It has the logical attribute, 
feminine Gender ; because, etc. 

16. The Common Gender is attributed to a noun, which 
names either a male, or a female, or both. 

2. Your uncle and aunt are cousins of my parents. Their 
children are pupils in my school. 

Parsing. Cousins is a subject Noun. It has the attribute, common 
G-ender ; because, it may be used as the name of males, or of females, 
or of both. 

Note II. Many, who object to a " Common Gender," use a " Neuter 
Gender," nevertheless; while others, with more consistency, reject ' 
both. "If," say the latter, "gender means sex, then only the names 
of males and females have gender." This error comes from using a 
fake definition ; as, " Gender is sex." Gender is the attribute only, 
which relates to the presence and kind, or absence of sex in the thing 
named; hence, gender is a more comprehensive term than sex. Gen- 
der is an attribute of the names of all objects, whether animate or 
inanimate. In every language, there are certain words, which are to 
be used only as the names of males ; others as the names of females ; 
and others, which may be applied to either, or to both. Now, since these 
three distinctions are found in the use of words, it becomes absolutely 
essential for good scholarship, that the learner be taught to use words 
correctly in this respect 

3. Husband and wife are a " married couple/' or "partners 
for life ;" father and mother are parents; sons and daughters 
are children.; brothers and sisters are kindred ; and all may 
constitute a family and be relatives. 



17 • The Neuter Gender is attributed to a noun which 
names neither sex. 

4. The approach of a storm, accompanied by thunder and 
lightning, is a sublime spectacle. 

Parsing. Approach is a subject common Noun. It has the attri- 
bute, neuter gender ; because, it names that which is neither a male 
nor a female. 

Note III. The Neuter Gender is attributed to Phrase Nouns And, 
also, to Sentential or Clause Nouns. 



168 



GRAMMAR. 



[CHAP. IV, 



5. The play was called " A Peep Behind the Scenes" 

Parsing. " A Peep Behind the Scenes" is a phrase subject noun. It 
has the neuter Gender. 

6. She heard the birds sing. 

The birds sing is a sentential or clause object Noun. It has the neutet 
Gender. 

'Note IV. Sometimes, by a figurative use of language, Nouns, nam- 
ing inanimate objects, take either the Masculine, or Feminine Gender. 
(See Chap. V., Personification.) 

7. The sun riseth, and he also goeth down. 

Parsing. Sun is a subject proper noun, which has the attribute 
neuter gender ; but, by a figure of speech, it has the attribute, mascu- 
line gender. 

8. The moon is up, how bright she shines. 

9. Look at yon ship, how well she sails. 

Note Y. Names of animals and plants, whose sexes cannot be 
readily distinguished, are frequently personified by it 

10. Even a child is known by its doings. 

11. Does the rabbit sleep with its eyes open ? 

12. The ]ark mounts up on joyous wings, 
In heaven's own light, it gayly sings. 

The Means of Knowing the Genders of Nouns. 

18. The Genders of Nouns may be known in three 
ways ;— 

First By their meanings. The Genders of most Eng 
lish Nouns are known by their meanings or ideas only 



Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor 


maid 


Husband 


wife 


Beau 


belle 


King 


queen 


Boy 


girl 


Lad 


lass 


Brother 


sister 


Lord 


lady 


Buck 


doe 


Master 


mistress 


Bull 


cow 


Milter 


spawner 


Bullock 


heifer 


Monk 


nun 


Cock 


hen 


Nephew 


niece 


Colt 


filly 


Ram 


ewe 


Drake 


duck 


Sloven 


slut 


Earl, Count 


countess 


Son 


daughter 



GENDEES OF NOTTNS. 



169 



Male. Female. Male. 

Father mother Stag 

Gander goose Steer 

Hart roe Uncle 

Horse mare Wizard 

Second. By prefix modifications. 

Female. Male. 

woman-kind Man-servant 

female-teacher He-goat 



Man-kind 
Male-teacher 



Third. By suffix modifications. 



Female. 



Male. 



Female. 
hind 
heifer 
aunt 
witch. 



Female. 
maid-servant 
she-goat. 



Female. 



Abbot 


abbess 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Actor 


actress 


Mayor 


mayoress 


Adulterer 


adulteress 


Mediator 


mediatress 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Monitor 


monitress 


Auditor 


auditress 


Murderer 


murderess 


Author 


authoress 


Negro 


negress 


Baron 


baroness 


Orator 


oratress 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Patron 


patroness 


Canon 


canoness 


Peer 


peeress 


Caterer 


cateress 


Poet 


poetess 


Chanter 


chantress 


Porter 


portress 


Competitor 


competitress 


Preceptor 


preceptress 


Conductor 


conductress 


Priest 


priestess 


Count, Earl 


countess 


Prince 


princess 


Czar 


czarina 


Prior 


prioress 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Progenitor 


progenitress 


Demon 


demoness 


Procurer 


procuress 


Director 


directress 


Prophet 


prophetess 


Doctor 


doctress 


Protector 


protectress 


Duke 


duchess 


Quaker 


quakeress 


Editor 


editress 


Seamster 


seamstress 


Elector 


electress 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Emperor 


empress 


Songster 


songstress 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Fornicator 


fornicatress 


Sultan 


sultaness, sultan* 


Founder 


foundress 


Suitor 


suitress 


God 


goddess 


Tailor 


tailoress 


Governor 


governess 


Tempter 


temptress 


Hebrew 


hebrewess 


Tiger 


tigress 


Heir 


heiress 


Traitor 


traitress 


Hermit 


hermitess 


Treasurer 


treasuress 


Host 


hostess 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Huckster 


huckstress 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Hunter 


huntress 


Votary 


votaress 


Idolater 


idolatress 


Administrator 


administratrix 


Inheritor 


inheritress 


Arbitrator 


arbitratrix 


[nstructer 


instructress 


Coadjutor 


coadjutrix 


Jew 


Jewess 


Executor 


executrix 


Lion 


Q lioness 


Testator 


testatrix. 



170 GRAMMAS. [CHAP. IV. 



Person. 

19. Person is a logical attribute, which a noun derives 

from the relations of its ideal to the narration. 

20. Nouns have three kinds of Person; namely, 
First, Second, and Third Person. 

First Person. 

2 1 • The First Person is an attribute of a noun naming the 

narrator. 

Examples. 

1. Am I Joseph ? I am Joseph. 

Grammatical Analysis. Joseph is a second subject proper Noun. 
It has the attributes, masculine gender, first Person. Joseph has the 
first Person, because it names the narrator. 

2. We, inhabitants of the State of Maine, do petition, etc. 

3. The property was left to us, his successors. 

Second Person. 

23. The Second Person is an attribute of a noun naming 
the narratee. 

4. Brutus. Mark Anthony, here, take you Caesar's body. 

Parsing. Mark Anthony is a subject proper noun, masculine gender, 
second Person. It has the logical attribute, second Person, because it 
names the narratee. 

5. Go, slaves, and do your master's bidding. 

6. How dear thou art ! 0, Auld Lang Syne. 

Auld Lang Syne is a phrase subject noun. It has the second Person. 

Third Person. 

33. The Third Person is an attribute of a noun naming 
neither a narrator nor a narratee. 



PERSONS OF NOUNS. 171 

7. Heaven keep that monster from Othello's mind. 

Id this example, eac^SNoun has the attribute, third Person ; because 
it names neither the narrator nor the narratee. 

Note I. Any one of the three persons may be attributed to a Phrase 
Noun, and, also, to a Sentential or Clause Noun. 

8. She heard the bird sing. 

The bird [to] sing is a clause first object Noun, neuter gender, third 
Person. 

Note II. Narrators usually name themselves by using the pgrson- 
ators, I, my, mine, me, we, our, ours, us. 

Note III. "When the narrator addresses himself as he would another 
individual, his own name has the second Person ; when he narrates his 
own actions as those of another individual, his own name has the third 
Person. 

9. Said I to myself, " Charles Green, mark my words, 
'You mean to be a good, clever fellow, but you miss it very 
often ; you know you do, Mr. Charles Green. 1 " 

Charles Green is in the second Person, although really the name of 
the person speaking or the narrator. 

In Caesar's Commentaries we find passages, similar to the following, 
written by Caesar, concerning himself; — 

10. Caesar orders the troops to follow, but scarcely have 
they reached the hill-top, when Csesar perceives one approach- 
ing, who informs Csesa/, etc. 

In this example, Caesar is in the third Person, although really the 
name of the writer or narrator. 

Note IY. Those addressed are usually named by thou, thy, thine, 
thee, you, ye, your, yours. When the one, making the address, uses the 
name of the one addressed, as that of a third individual, that name has 
the third Person ; thus, Mr. Brown says to Mr. "Williams ; — 

11. Ah, Mr. "Williams! I hope Mr. Williams is well to- 
day ! He w is Mr. Williams' business ? Very happy to meet 
Mr. Williams. 

In this example, Williams is in the third Person, although in reality 
th<s name of the person addressed, which has the second Person. 

12. Hear, land of cakes, and brother Scots ! 

13. Friends! Romans! Countrymen I Lovers! Lend me 
your ears. 



172 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

The Means of Knowing- the Person of Nouns. 

2,4:. The Person of Nouns may be shown in two 

ways ;— 

First By the meaning only. 

14. Hail, holy light! Come here, hoys. 

We know that the Nouns, light, ooys, have the Second Person, be- 
cause they name narratees. 

loT War brings famine, pestilence, and death. 

We know that the Nouns, war, famine, pestilence, death, have the 
Third Person, because they name neither narrators 'nor narratees. 

Second. By the apposition of a Noun with a pronoun. 

16. / Coesar, send these things to you, Romans. 

We know that the Noun. Caesar, is in the First Person, because it la 
in apposition with that which is personated by the personator. 

17. I am the man. Ye are the light of the world. 

Number. 

25. Number is a logical attribute, which a noun derives 
from an ideal of one, or of more than oife. 

26. Nouns have tivo kinds of Numbers ; namely, 
Singular, and Plural Numbers. 

Singular Number. 

27. The Singular Number is an attribute of a noun nam' 
ing an idea of one object, or of one group of objects. 

Examples. 

1. The condition of the army was deplorable. 

Parsing. Condition is a subject noun, neuter gender, third per- 
son, singular Number. Condition has the logical attribute, singular 
Number, because it names an idea of one object. 



NUMBERS OF NOUNS. 173 

Army is an adjunct noun, neuter gender, third person, singular 
Number. Army has the singular Number, because it names the idea 
of one group or collection of objects. 

2. A pupil, who learns every lesson and regards every 
rule, deserves the commendation of the teacher. 

3. What is the meaning of the phrase, " Multum in Parvo f " 

Multum in parvo is an adjunct noun, in apposition with phrase, 
neuter gender, third person, singular Number. 

4. The officer ordered the men to make haste. 

TJie men to make haste is a clause first object noun, neuter gender, 
third person, singular Number. 

Plural Number. 



28. The Plural Number is an attribute of a noun naming 

an ideal of two, or more objects. 

5. The devastations, committed by the troops, greatly dis- 
tressed the inhabitants. 

Parsing. Devastations is a subject common noun, neuter gender, 
third person, plural Number. 

6. Pupils, who learn all the lessons, and regard all the 
rules, deserve the commendations of the teachers. 

Note I. Phrase and Clause Nouns are generally in the Singula? 
Number, but they may be used in either Number. 

7. All the " Hail Columbias" which you have ever heard, 
are but repetitions of one " Hail Columbia." 

Note II. A Noun, which is Singular in form and Plural in signifi- 
cation, is called a Collective Noun, or a Noun of Multitude. Sometimes, ^ 
however, in consequence of a contraction, an adjunct Noun has the 
appearance of a Collective Noun, when it is really a Noun in the Sin- 
gular Number. 

8. The jwqy were of different opinions. 

Special Analysis. Jury is a collective noun or a noun of multitude; 
because, although singular in form, it is plural in meaning. 



174 GRAMMAE. [OHAP. IV. 

Note III. A Collective Noun, meaning the group, collection, 01 

number named, must be considered as Singular ; while a Collective 
Noun, meaning the individuals in the group, must be Plural. 

9. The army was defeated with great slaughter. 

10. The committee were unanimous in their opinions. 

11. The jury was charged very carefully "by the judge, and 
yet they could not agree. 

Note IV. In statements imputing blame to persons, the speaker 
may mention himself first ; in all others, he should mention himself 
last. 

The Means of knowing the Numbers of Nouns. 

29. The Numbers of Nouns may be known in three 

ways ;— 

First. By their meanings only. There are only a few 
Nouns of this class. 

12. My sheep is tame. Your sheep are wild. 
Second. By suffix and root modifications. 

13. This bush was taken from those bushes. Your hat is 
among those hats. 

The Noun, bush, is known to have the Singular Number, because it 
is used without a suffix. 

The Noun, bushes, is known to have the Plural Number, by the suf- 
fix, es. 

The Noun, hats, is known to have the Plural Number, because it has 
the suffix, s. 

14. That man is looking at those men. This goose should 
go with those geese. 

The Noun, man, is known to have the Singular Number, by its form. 
Men shows, the Plural Number, by the modification caused by a being 
changed to e, in the root. 

15. The jury could not agree until they ftad asked the 
opinion of the Court. 

That is, the members of the jury, or the jury-men, could not 
agree, etc. 



MEAJJS OF KNOWING NTJMBEE8. 



175 



I. 


Adding s. 






Adding es. 


Singular, 


Plural. 




Singular. Plurai 


Sea 


seas 




Bush 


bushes 


House 


houses 




Box 


boxes 


Cab 


cabs 




Mattress 


mattresses 


Day 


days 




Lens 


lenses 


Lad 


lads 




Adz 


adzes 


Monarch (ch hard) monarchs 




Church (cAsoft) churches 


Eunuch 


eunuchs 




Fish 


fishes. 


II. F and Fe Regular. 


F and Fe Irregular, changed to P! 


Singular. 


Plural. 




Singulai 


Plural. 


Chief 


chiefs 




Thief 


thieves 


Gulf 


gulfs 




Calf 


calves 


Fife 


fifes 




Wife 


wives 


Strife 


strifes 




Life 


lives 


Flagstaff 


flagstaff's 




Staff 


staves. 


Wharf fin 


England) wharfs. 


Wharf ( 


in America) wharves. 


And many 


more in f and 


fi, 


unclassified. 


ff t is always regular ex« 


cept in staff ) as a simple. 










III. Irregular by Changing Letters, 


Foot 


feet 




Man 


men 


Goose 


geese 




Mouse 


mice 


Tooth 


teeth 




Louse 


lice. 



IV. Double in Form, or Redundant in Form, and Variable 
in Signification. 



Brother (same family) 


brothers 


Index (Algebraic) 


indices 


Brother (same society) 


brethren 


Index (Pointer) 


indexes 


Die (for gaming) 


dice 


Pea (different kind) 


pease 


Die (for coining) 


dies 


Pea (different seeds) 


peas 


Genius (spirit) 


genii 


Penny (the coin) 


pennies 


Genius (talented) 


geniuses. 


Penny (the value) 


pence. 



30. Many Nouns, derived from other languages, re- 
tain their original Plurals, and some have an English 
form in the Plural also. The singular generally ends 
in a, fir, us, um, on, or x. They are derived princi- 
pally from the Latin and the Greek languages. 



176 



GBAMMAR. 



[CHAP. IV 



I. Those in a, have the Plural in ce, or as. 



Singular. 
Formula 

Lamina 
Larva 



Plural. 
formulae, or 
formulas 
laminae 
larvae 



Singular. 
Minutia 
Nebula 
Miasma 



Plural. 
minutiae 
nebulae 
miasmata, dr 
miasmas. 



II. Those in is, have the Plural in es. 



Amanuensis amanuenses Hypothesis hypotheses 

Analysis analyses Metamorphosis metamorphoses 

Antithesis antitheses Crisis crises 

Axis axes Ellipsis ellipses 

Basis bases Thesis theses. 



III. Those in us, have the Plural i, or es. 

Alumnus alumni Magus magi 

Focus foci Radius radii 

Fungus fungi, funguses Stimulus stimuli 

Genus genera Ignis Fatuus Ignes*Fatui. 

IV. Those in um, on, have the Plural in a, or urns and on& 



Animalculum 

Arcanum 

Datum 

Desideratum 

Effluvium 

Encomium 

Erratum 

Automaton 

Criterion 



animalcula 

arcana 

data 

desiderata 

effluvia 

encomia, -miums 

errata 

automata, -tons 

criteria, -rions 



Gymnasium 
Medium 



gymnasia, -siums 
media, mediums 



Memorandum memoranda, -dums 



Momentum 

Scholium 

Stratum 

Speculum 

Phenomenon 

Stamen 



momenta, -turns 
scholia, scholiums 
strata, stratums 
specula 
phenomena 
stamina, stamens. 



V. Nouns, ending in x, have Plurals in ces. or xes. 



Apex 

Appendix 

Calx 



Beau 
Belle 



apices, apexes Vertex 

appendices, -dixes Vortex 
calces 

VI. French Words. 



vertices, vertexes 
vortices, vortexes. 



beaux Monsieur, Mr. Messieurs, Messrs. 

belles Mademoiselle, Miss. Mademoiselles, Misses, 
Madame, Mrs. Mesdames, Mrs* 



MEANS OF KNOWING NUMBERS. 177 

Mr., Master, bog, Masters Miss, a girl Misses, girls 

Mr., Mister, man, Messieurs Mrs., married woman, or women. 

Rule First. When two, or more of the same name are 

addressed, prefix the plural title. 

a. Mr. William Brown The Messieurs Brown 

6. Miss Jones and Miss Brown The Misses Jones and Brown 

c. Master James and Master John Masters James and John Brown 

Brown 

d. Miss Jane and Miss Ann Brown Misses Jane and Ann Brown. 

Rule Second. When the words, two, three, fyc, are pre* 
fixed, pluralize the noun only. 
«. The two Mr. Smiths. The three Miss Fosters. 

VII. German Words. 

Child children Ox oxen. 

VIII. Hebrew Words. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Cherub cherubim, cherubs Seraph seraphim, seraphs. 

IX. 0, after a Consonant, adds es; but there are exceptional 

Cargo cargoes Canto cantos 



Hero 


heroes 


Grotto grottos, -toes 


Negro 


negroes 


Motto mottos, -toes 


Volcano 


volcanoes 


Solo solos 


Wo 


woes 


And some others. 



X. T, after a Consonant, is changed into ies ; some exceptions. 
Lady ladies Regular forms ; Day days 

Fly flies Valley valleys 

Spy spies Joy joys, &c. 

Sicily Sicilies Some Proper nouns do not change. Henry Henrys 

Ptolemy Ptolemies Mary Marys. 

Alioquy Alloquies. Likewise, Colloquy, and Soliloquy. 

XI. Some Nouns have no Plural ; and hence, are said to be 

Defective in Number. 

Gold Pride Wheat Wine 

Silver Meekness Rye • Flour 

Tin, &c. Industry, &c. Barley, &c. Tea, &c. 

But some nouns of this class take plural forms to signify different 
kinds ; as, the wines of Europe, and the teas of China. 



178 GBAMMAB. [CHAP. IV. 

XII. Some Nouns have no Singular; and are, therefore, 

Defective in Number. 

Ashes Scissors Clothes Vitals Nippers 

Bellows Shears Goods Bowels, &c. Tongs, &c. 

XIII. Some Nouns have the same Forms in both Numbers. 

Deer Salmon Brace Vermin 

Sheep Trout Dozen Hose 

Swine Fry Gross Yoke, &c. 

XIV. Some Nouns are Plural in Form, and Singular, 01 
Plural in Meaning. These are Variable in Meaning. 

a. Names of the sciences in ics ; as Mathematics, ethics, &c. 

b. Names of diseases and ceremonies in s ; as, Mumps, measles, nup- 
tials, &c. 

c. Alms, amends, news, pains (effort), odds, wages, &c. 

• XV. Letters, Numerals, and Signs, form the Plural by an- 
nexing the Apostrophe and s ; as, the A's, the B's, the s's, 
the t's, the 2's, the 6's, the +'s, the — 's. 

Hundred and thousand are pluralized, when used to mean an indefi- 
nite number; as, hundreds were saved, thousands were squandered; 
but after a numeral, they are singular ; as, 5 hundred, 10 thousand. 

XVI. Phrase Nouns, formed by joining a Noun and an 
Adjunct, pluralize the Noun ; those formed by uniting two 
Nouns, pluralize both. 

Aid-de-camp aids-de-camp Man-servant men-servants 

Cousin-german cousins-german Knight-templar knights-templars 
Hanger-on hangers-on Handful (is regular) handful s. 

Third. By their adjuncts. Sometimes the Number of 
a Noun is known by its adjunct. 

16. In a multitude of counsellors, there is safety. 

The Noun, multitude, is known to have the Singular Number, by its 
adjunct, a. 

17. This skeep is mine; those sheep are yours. 

Note Y. "When the adjuncts, many, a, belong to the same Noun, the 
Noun has the Singular Number. 

18. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, and waste 
its sweetness on the desert air. 



CASES OF NOUNS. 179 



Case. 

31. Case is a rhetorical attribute, which the noun derives 

from its use or office in the sentence, 

32. In the English language, four Cases of the 
Noun are distinguished ; namely, the Nominative, the 
Objective, the Vocative, and the Possessive. 

Note I. Philosophically considered, there will always be as many 
Cases in any language as it has different relators, with the addition of 
a Case for subjects and another for first objects ; because, that is the 
real number of different rhetorical uses. Hence, we see that the reason, 
why one language appears to differ from another in the number of 
Cases, is because, in one of them, more of these Cases receive special 
names than in the other. In the English, only four Cases are specially 
named ; in the Latin, six ; in the Greek, Jive. Most of the modern 
European languages have four Cases. 

Nominative Case. 

33. The Nominative Case is a rhetorical attribute, taken by 
a subject noun, to show that its sentence or clause is independent 
in form ; Or, that its sentence or clause is not to be taken with 
another, unless joined to it by a connector ; by a relative adjunct ; 
by the inceptive, that ; or by quotation. 

Note II. The Nominative Singular is sometimes called the Leading 
Case of the Noun. The other Cases are called the Oblique, or Second- 
ary, and are said to be derived from, or to be from the Nominative Sin- 
gular. • 

Note. It must be borne in mind, that Case is an attribute or property which 
every Noun derives from its rhetorical use or office, and that the Noun may not have 
a modification by which this attribute is shown. In many languages, as in the 
Latin and the Greek, the Case of the Noun is shown by its termination, which is 
usually called the Case-ending. This Case-ending or Modification, which is only 
the sign of the Case, is often mistaken for the attribute, Case, itself. The Case is a 
property of the Noun, the modification is merely a sign of that property. 



180 GEAMMAJL [CHAP. IV. 

Examples. 

1. Man needs but little here below. He needs but little 
here below. 

Grammatical Analysis. Man is a subject common Noun ; masculine 
, third , singular . It has the rhetorical attribute, nomi- 
native Case, to show that its sentence, man needs but little here below, is 
independent in its form ; or, that in its present form, it must not be 
taken as a clause in a compound sentence, unless it be joined to 
another, or another be joined to it, either by a connector, or by a 
relative adjunct, etc. 

2. Thy word created all, and Thou dost sustain all things 
which Thou hast made. 

The subject, personated by Thou, is put in the nominative Case, to 
show that its clause, Thou dost sustain, etc., is independent in its form, 
and hence, requires the connector, and, in order that it may be a clause 
of the compound sentence. 

3. When I laid the foundations of the deep, where wert 
thou ? In what place wert thou, when I laid the foundations 
of the deep ? 

The subject, personated by I, is put in the nominative Case, to show 
that its clause is independent in its form, and that it has become a 
clause solely by the use of the relative adjunct, when. 

4. Has this lesson been studied by these students ? This 
lesson has been studied by these students. 

5. " The Wrecker's Daughter" was very beautifully played 
by the band. 

The Wrecker's Daughter is a phrase subject Noun; neuter , 

third , singular , and in the nominative Case. 

6. Dust thou art, was not spoken of the soul. f 

Dust thou art is a sentential or clause subject noun ; Neuter , 

third , singular , and in the nominative Case. 

7. Saturn is said to have come into Italy. 

Saturn to have come into Italy is a clause subject Noun; neuter, 
third, singular, and in the nominative Case. Its subject, Saturn, 
is apparently -in the Numinative, while really it is in the Objective 
Case. It is apparently in the Nominative, to show that the whole 
complex sentence, Saturn is said, etc., is independent of all other 
pauses. 



cases of Norars. 181 

8. The man is said to have come. He is said to have come. 

The subject Noun, man, al though, apparently in the Nominative 
Case, is really in the Objective Case. It has the nominative or in- 
dependent form, to show that the whole complex sentence is inde- 
pendent of any other sentence, and that its own clause, the man to 
have come is said, is in the nominative case. 

9. The Alleghanies are supposed by some persons to be 
older than the Rocky Mountains. Some persons suppose 
the Alleghanies to be older than the Rocky Mountains. 



Objective Case. 

34. The Objective Case is a rhetorical attribute given to 
all object nouns, and to all subject nouns of clauses joined by 
Form of the Clause, or by the inceptive, for, and to subject 
nouns of clause second objects not quoted. 

10. "We saw the children 31 with the boy hl in the park. 
"We saw them 731 with him 751 in the park. 51 

Parsing. Children is an object common Noun ; common gender, 
third person, plural number. It has the rhetorical attribute, objective 
Case ; because, it is an object Noun. 

11. The students were singing "The Homes of our Child- 
hood." FZl 

Parsing. The Homes of our Childhood is a phrase object proper 
Noun ; neuter, third, singular. It has the attribute, objective Case ; 
because, it is an object Noun. 

12. A serenader sings, "Meet me by moonlight." 6131 
Parsing. Meet me by moonlight is a clause object proper Noun; 

neut., th., sing., objective Case. (See Syntax of Clause Nouns.) 

Note III. Some English scholars put all subject nouns of Indirect 
objects and of Adjunct clauses in the Objective Case; while some 
American scholars put these subject nouns in the Possessive Case. 
Each is right in part and wrong in part. It is a general law of all 
languages that, The subject of a clause noun must take the case of its 
clause, excepting some incepted and quoted clauses. 

13. Correct I thought of him 112 working in the mine. cl 51 
(Incomect.) I thought of his ivorking in the mine. cln 

14. Cor. I had no thought of his working in the mine. 01 6l 
(Incor.) I had no thought of him working in the mine.* 1 * 1 



182 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 



Vocative Case. 

35. The Vocative Case is attributed to an exclamative oi 
appellative noun, when its trice case can not be distinguished. 

Note IT. The Vocative Case is sometimes called the Absolute Case, 
the Independent Case, or the Nominative Absolute. The term, Absolute, 
is meaningless as here used ; because, a Noun can have no Case unless 
it has some use or office in the sentence. 

14. " An arrant rogue!" said the knight, musingly. 

The exclamative Noun, rogue, has the attribute vocative Case; bo- 
cause, the narratee cannot know its use or office. 

15. Halloa, there ! William ! 

The appellative Noun, William, has the vocative Case ; because, no 
means are given by which to know its use or office in the sentence. 
That is, whether the narrator intended, I want William ; or, William^ 
look here. 



Possessive Case. 

36. The Possessive Case is a rhetorical attribute given to 
adjunct nouns, and to all subject nouns of adjunct clause 
nouns. 

16. A. maris life is not the most valuable part of his pos- 
sessions. 

Parsing. Marts is an adjunct common Noun ; masc, third, sing. It 
has the rhetorical attribute, possessive Case ; because, it is an adjunct 
Noun. 

Possessions is Noun ; neut, third, plu. It has the attribute, 

possessive Case ; because, it is an adjunct Noun. 

17. Can you sing -any part of " Home, Sweet Home ? n 

N.B.— -The Possessive Case may be called the Genitive, and the 
Objective, the Accusative Case. 



CASES OF NOUNS. 183 

The phrase adjunct Noun, Home, Sweet Home, is in the possessive 
Case. 

18. My brother's wife's father's partners' houses were 
burned last night. 

19. The houses of the partners of. the father of the wife 
of my brother were burned last night. 

20. The houses of the partners of my brother's wife's 
father were burned last night. 

Note V. Grammarians usually attribute the Objective Case to an 
adjunct Noun related -by of. No good reason for this can be given. 
This error originated thus ; — 

The fact was observed that second object Nouns have the Objective 
Case, and that all second object Nouns are related to predicates by 
relators; hence, was asserted the general dogma, "A Noun or Pro- 
noun, used as the object of a Preposition, must be in the Objective 
Case." Overlooking the two facts ; first, that a preposition may be 
used to show the relation of an adjunct Noun to its principal; second, 
of a verb in the infinitive mode to its subject; and, that this dogma 
requires an adjunctive Noun to be in the Objective Case, and it also 
requires a verb in the infinitive mode to be in the Objective Case. (See 
Prepositions.) 

Note VI. The Possessive Case is incorrectly attributed to subject 
Nouns of second object clauses. (See Note III.) 

21. He spoke of the man's [man] going to Europe. 

Parsing. The man's going to Europe is a second object clause Noun, 
related by of to the predicate, spoke. It is neuter, etc. Man's is a sub- 
ject common Noun, of the second object clause, the man's going to Europe ; 
masc, th.. sing. It has the possessive Case, by incorrect use. 

Note VIT. The attribute, Case, seems to have had its origin as a 
means of distinguishing the sentences aud clauses of paragraphs, 
which were written continuously or without capitals and punctuations. 
That is, when the offices of words were distinguished by the modifica- 
tions of words and by their position in the sentences. Thus ; — 

22. Romans friends countrymen and lovers lend me your 
ears hear me for my cause and be silent that ye may hear. 

Parsing. Romans is an appellative subject Noun. It has the 
rhetorical attribute, vocative Case ; because, it is either a subject, or an 
object Noun. 

Friends has the vocative Case ; because, it has the same use 01 
office ; (ir, is in apposition or synonymous with Romans. 



184 GRAMMAR [CHAP. IV. 

The Means of Knowing the Cases of Nouns. 

37. The Cases of Nouns may be known in two 

ways; - 

First. By the use or office of the Noun, in a sentence. 
By its use or office in a sentence, the Case of a Noun, 
in any language, may be known. In the English lan- 
guage, the use or office of the Noun is the only means, 
by which, the Nominative and Objective Cases may be 
known. 

Note VIII. The Vocative Case is used to accommodate those in- 
' stances, in which, the use or office of an exclamative or appellative 
Noun cannot be distinctly ascertained. Hence, when the Vocative 
Case is attributed to a Noun, it is simply attributing to it the Nomina- 
tive,* or the Objective Case. 

Second. By a suffix modification ; or, by a relator, used 
to show the Possessive Case. The suffix modification 
is the apostrophe and s [ ? s], or the apostrophe [ ' ] only. 

38 o Principle. If the noun end in ce, s, or x, the apos- 
trophe only is suffixed ; hut, if the noun do not end in ce, s, or 
x, the apostrophe and s are suffixed. 

Exceptions. — The Apostrophe and s [ \s ] are sometimes 
used to denote the plural number; as, 2 A's, 4 +'s. 

23. The parents' fondness for wealth is greater than the 
children's fondness for it. 

24. For peace' and for conscience' sake, restrain desire. 

25. This man's account of the matter, confirms the other 
men's account of it. 

26. "Who bore, by turns, Ajax' seven-fold shield. 

Note IX. Some suffix the s with the apostrophe to Noux* ending in 
ce, 5, or x. The practice should be condemned on account of its 
cacophony. 

27. Mrs. Hemans's fine lines on the death of Fergus. 



DECLENSION OF THE NOUN. 



185 



Fourth, The Declension of the Noun. 

39. The Declension of the Noun is the mode of showing 
its attributes, Numbee, Case, and the modifications belonging 
to these attributes. 

Note I. The Vocative Case has the same form as the Nominative 
and Objective Cases ; hence, it need not be stated in the Declension. 





Table. 






SINGULAR. 


: 


PLURAL. 


Norn. fr Ob 


.* Possessive. 


Norn. 8p Ob. 


* Possessive. 


Sea 


sea's, or of sea 


Seas 


seas', or of seas 


Cab 


cab's, of cab 


Cabs 


cabs', of cabs 


Bush 


bush's, of bush 


Bushes 


bushes', of bushes 


Lens 


lens', of lens 


Lenses 


lenses', of lenses 


Chief 


chief's, of chief 


Chiefs 


chiefs', of chiefs 


Thief 


thief's, of thief 


Thieves 


thieves', of thieves 


Foot 


foot's, of foot 


Feet 


feet's, of feet 


Brother 


brother's, of brother 


Brothers 


brothers', of brothers 


Formula 


formula's, of formula 


Formulae, -as 


formulas', of formulas 


Axis 


axis', of axis 


Axes 


axes', of axes 


Stratum 


stratum's, of stratum 


Strata, turns 


strata's, turns', of — 


Apex 


apex', of apex 


Apices, exes 


apices', exes', of — 


Gold 


gold's, of gold 


. 





Industry 


industry's, of industry 














Scissors 


scissors', of scissors 








Goods 


goods', of goods 


Hundred 


hundred's, of hundred 


Hundred, -ds hundred, dreds', of— 


Thousand 


a (t 


u *< 


tt tt cc 


8, t, + 


of 8, oft, of + 


8's, t's, +'s 


of 8's, of t's, of+'s 



The plural of letters, numbers, signs, &c, which is formed by ad- 
ding the apostrophe and s, must be distinguished from the same signs 
when used to denote the Possessive Case. 



186 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 



Fifth, Syntax of Nouns. 

Cases of Subject Nouns. 

General Principle. A Subject Noun may take any Case 
used in the language, to which the Subject Noun belongs. 
Hence, we have the following Rules ; — 

Rule I. The Subject Noun of an Independent sentence or 
clause ; of a Dependent clause joined by a subordinate connec- 
tor ; by a Relative Adjunct ; by the inceptive, that, generally 
by Quotation, and by Form of the clause without an inceptive, 
must have the Nominative Case. 

1. Asa 11 sees the boys. 31 The boys 11 run. Asa 11 sees the 
boys 31 and 8 the boys 11 run. Asa 11 sees the boys 31 if 8 the 
boys 11 run. Asa 11 sees the boys 31 which 6 [boys 11 ] run. Asa 11 
sees the boys 31 while 6 the boys 11 run. Asa 11 sees that 4 the 
boys 11 run. clzl That 4 the boys 11 run cln is seen by Asa. 51 Asa 11 
said "the boys 11 run." clzl "The boys 11 run" cln was said by 
Asa. 51 The boys 11 were seen to run clil by Asa. 51 

2. He 712 sees them. 732 They 712 run. He sees them and 
they run. He sees them if they run. He sees the boys 
which run. He sees them while they run. He sees that 
they run. That they run is seen by him. 752 He said " they 
run." " They run" was said by him. They were seen to 
run by him. 

The examples, given above, furnish every variety of sentences, 
which may contain a subject noun in the Nominative Case. 

The student should now examine the subjects of the examples 
under Independent Sentences and those of Sentences Dependent in 
Thought and Independent in Form (pp. 129, 130). 

Rule II. The Subject Noun of a Dependent clause joined 
by Form of the clause ; by the inceptive, for ; and a subject 
noun of a second object clause, must have the Objective or Ac* 
cusative Case. 

3. Asa saw the boys 11 [to] run. cU1 For 4 the boys 11 to run clu 
was thoughtless. It was thoughtless for 4 the boys 11 to run. av 



CASES OF NOUNS. 187 

Asa waited ior u the boys 11 to come to him. 0151 Asa spoke of 
the boys 11 going to town,' 151 

4 He saw theiri 112 [to] run. For 4 them to run was thought- 
less. It was thoughtless for them to run. He waited for 
them 112 to come to him. He spoke of them 112 going to town. 
(See Cases of Nouns, Note HI.) 

In ex., 3, may be found every variety of clauses which may have 
Subject nouns in the Objective or Accusative Case. They fully 
prove that the generally received dogma, "Subject Nouns are in the 
Nominative Case," is an untruth. 

For Subject Nouns in the Objective Case, see Dependent Sentences, 
also Clause Nouns. 

Rule HI. The Subject Noun of a Clause Adjunct Noun, 
not quoted, must have the Possessive or Genitive Case. 

5. Asa told the story of the boys 911 going to town.* 1 * 1 He 
told the story of boys 712 going to town. 01 * 1 

Rule IV. The Subject of a Clause Noun, neither incepted 
by that nor quoted must take the Case of its clause. 

6. For men 11 to lie is base. 0111 Saturn 11 is said to have 
come* 111 Ralph desired the boys 11 to come. olzl My friend 
wrote about the trees 11 growing by the shore. 01 51 John wrote 
the account of the trees' 11 growing by the shore. 01 61 

7. For them iu to lie is base. He is said to have come. He 
desired them to come. He wrote about them 712 growing by 
the shore. He wrote the account of their growing by the 
shore. 

Note I. By carefully observing the Subject Nouns given in the 
preceding examples, the student may find ; — 

First. That a Subject Noun may be in any Case used in the 
language to which the Subject Noun belongs. 

Second. That the generally received dogma, "A Subject Noun 
must have the Nominative Case," is a false statement. 

Third. That a Verb whose Subject is not in the Nominative Case 
must have either the Infinitive, or the Participial Mode. (See Modes 
of the Verb.) 

Case of First or Direct Object Nouns. 

Kule V. A Direct Object Noun must take the Objective oj 

Accusative Case. 



188 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

1. James learns his lessons* 1 The teacher wishes James 
to learn his lessons. 01 31 The teacher desired that James would 
learn his lessons. 01 31 The teacher inquired " Has James learned 
his lessons f" 

2. He learns them. 731 He wishes him to learn them. He 
deeired that he would learn them. He inquired has he 
learned them ? 

The Clause Direct Object Nouns — James would learn his lessons, 
has James learned Ms lessons, have the Objective or Accusative 
Case, although their Subject, James, has the Nominative Case. (See 
Rule I.) 

Case op Second or Indirect Object Nouns. 

Rule VI. A Second or Indirect Object Noun must take 

the Objective Case. 

Note I. A Second Object Noun, in the Greek, may take the 
Genitive, Dative and Accusative Case ; in the Latin, the Dative, the 
Accusative, or the Ablative Case. 

1. The letter was written by James 51 in a short time. 51 
The road is shaded by the tall trees 11 growing by its side* 151 
Human hearts have been cheered by "Trust ye in Me." 

2. It was written by him 752 in a short time. It is shaded 
by the trees growing by it. They have been cheered by 
"Trust ye in Me." 

Case op Adjunct Nouns. 

Rule VII. An Adjunct Noun must have the Possessive or 
Genitive Case. 

1. John's 61 wife is the sister of Joseph. 61 William had 
heard the report of John's 11 being a major. 11 That is your 
brother, 61 Robert, 61 the Doctor's 61 house. That is the house 
of your brother, 61 Robert, 61 the Doctor. 61 

2. His wife is the sister of Joseph [of him]. He had 
heard the report of his being a major. 61 There is his house. 
That is his house. 

Note I. When two, or more Adjunct nouns are used in apposi- 
tion, the apostrophe, as the sign of the Possessive Case, is used aftel 
the last noun only ; as, Your brother, Robert, the Doctor's house — , 
but, when synonymous Adjunct nouns are separated by a predicate 
the sign follows the first noun ; as, — John's being a major. 



GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 189 

Rule VHL A sentence which is quoted, must be taken as it 
was constructed by its narrator; and, its nouns must be parsed 
accordingly. 

3. After his victory, Perry wrote, "We have met the 
enemy, and they are ours." 

General Instructions. 

Note I. When students are required to analyze a Noun, they 
should give its Logical, its Rhetorical, and its Grammatical An- 
alyses ; but when required to * Parse a Noun," they should give its 
Grammatical Analysis only. 

Note II. In giving the Declension, when the Noun, which is 
parsed, is found, the student should say, "Here!" to show that he 
knows why he is declining the Noun, or that he has found it. This 
practice secures attention to the Declension. 

Note III. Students who have become familiar with Parsing, may 
give the adjunct words only of the- different kinds of attributes ; as, 
masculine ; third ; singular ; possessive . 

They may also omit naming the classifications of the Noun ; thus, 
son's is a noun ; instead of, son's is an adjunct common word Noun. 

Note IV. At the option of the teacher, the Vocative case may be 
mentioned in the Declension, or it may be omitted. 

1. Nathan 11 said 2 unto 4 David 51 "Thou 112 art 2 the 6 
man." 11 c131 

General Analysis. Logically, Nathan said, etc., is a complex com- 
pound thought, whose immediate elements are four ideas, Nathan, 
said, U7do, David, and one simple element thought, Thou art the 
man. Its first part is Nathan, the actor ; its second part, said, the 
action ; unto, relation ; David, subord. idea of the action, said ; its 
third part is the simple element thought, Thou art the man, of 
which Thou man is the exist or ; art, the state of existence. 

% 

Bhetorical Analysis. Nathan said, etc., is a complex compound 
sentence ; hence, it expresses a complex compound thought. Its 
immediate elements are four words, Nathan, the subject of the 
sentence; said, predicate of the subj., Nathan ; unto, relator of sec. 
obj., David, to pred., said ; David, sec. obj. of pred., said, related by 
unto; the simple dependent clause, Thou art the man, direct obj. 
of pred., said, related by Quotation to its co-ordinate element, said. 
Its immediate elements are, Thou, personator of subj., man fart, 
pred. of subj., man ; the, ad. of subj., man ; man, subj., of a depen- 
dent, historic or declarative clause. 



190 GRAMMAR. , [CHAP. IV 

Grammatical Analyses or Parsing of the Nouns. Nathan is a 
subject proper word Noun; masculine, third, singular, nominative. 
Principle. The subject noun, Nathan, has the nominative case, to 
show that its clause is not to be taken with another unless joined 
by a connector, by a relative adjunct, by the inceptive, that, or by 
quotation. According to Rule I. (See Syntax of Nouns. Let the 
student give the Rule.) 

It is declined ; Singular, Norn., Nathan (Here !) ; Obj. and Voc, 
Nathan ; Poss., Nathan's ; or of Nathan. Plural, Norn., Obj., 
and Voc., Nathans ; Poss., Nathans' ; or of Nathans. 

Note. Proper names are seldom used in the plural ; hence, in de- 
clining a proper Noun, its plural form may be omitted. The asser- 
tion, " Proper nouns want the Plural," cannot be sustained. 

David is a second object proper word noun, or a second object 
noun ; gender, — person, number, case. Prin- 
ciple. David has the objective case ; because, it is an English 
second object Noun. According to Rule VI. 

"A Second or Indirect Object Noun must take the Objective 
Case." 

It is declined ; Singular, Norn., David ; Obj., David (Here !) ; etc. 

Thou art the man is a first object common clause Noun, or a first 

object clause Noun ; gender, person, — — number, 

case. Principle. It has the objective case ; because, etc. 

Man is a subject common word Noun, or a subject Noun ; masc, 
third, sing., nominative. Principle. Man has the nominative, in- 
stead of the objective case ; because it is the subject Noun in a first 
object clause, which is quoted ; Rule VIII. 

Direction. The student should now be trained in the use of the 
Analyses of the Noun given on the next page. This is most easily 
done, by taking some noun, whose analyses have already been made 
familiar ; as, Nathan, David, man, Thou art the man, and placjng 
it in the blanks which occur in the Analyses ; thus, Logically, Nathan 
is the, etc. 



ANALYSES OF THE NOTTN. 



191 



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192 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

II. Pronouns. 

Personators. 

The science of the Pronoun includes ; first, the Defini- 
tions ; second, the Classification ; third, the Attributes, and 
the Means of knowing them ; fourth, the Declension ; and 
fifth, the Syntax of the Pronoun. 

First, Definitions. 

1. A Pronoun is a word, or a phrase, which, in a sentence, 
has the use or office of a personator. 

Literal Definition. The word, pronoun, means for, or instead 
of a noun. 

Analysis. Pronoun, noun, name, actor, power ; pro, for, instead 
of. 

Note I. The Principal or Antecedent of the term, Personator, in 
Grammar is called the Principal or Antecedent of the Pronoun or 
" the Noun for which the Pronoun stands." 

1. Word Pronouns. Squire Blade, said Furgus, may I n * 
call your attention to my n<i story? You 1u see, Squire, this 
man has done me 132 a great wrong ; because, he has taken 
away his team which / had for their™ 2 keeping. 

Grammatical Analysis. 7 is a pronoun; because, ia this sentence, 
it has the use or office of a personator. It personates the subject, 
Furgus. 

2. Phrase Pronoun. I Paul myself 712 write these things 
with mine own 762 hands. 

I myself is a Phrase Pronoun, personating the subject, Paul. 

Note II. Under Personators, we have shown that the Personator 
is artificial in its origin, and is to be used either for convenience, or 
for euphony, or for both ; and, that, when neither of these is to be 
gained, the Pwsonator should not be used. What was said of the 
Personator is, of course, true of the Pronoun. 

3. It is good and comely for one to eat and to drink and 
to enjoy the good of all his labor. For one to eat and for 
one to drink and for one to enjoy the good of all his labor is 
good, and for one to eat and for one to drink, etc., is comely. 

Parsing. It is a pronoun ; because, in this sentence, it has the 
use or office of a personator, and personates the compound contracted 
clause, for one to eat and for one to drink, etc. 



CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS. 193 

Second, The Classification of Pronouns. 

2. Pronouns according to their origin are Primitive, 
Derivative and Suffix Pronouns. 

Note I. That class of words, which grammarians call "Adjective 
Pronouns " is not given in this Work ; because, no word can be 
found in,a sentence, which at the same time is an adjunct and * 
personator. ^ 

3. A Primitive Pronoun is a Pronoun in the original or 
first form of Pronouns. 

Lit. Def. The word, primitive, means belonging to the first. 

Anal. Primitive. ive, belonging to, like ; (i)t, that which, one 
who; prim = prin, first, chief. 

The Primitive Pronouns are I, thou, he, she, it, and the Pronouns 
used in their Oblique Cases. (See Definitions of Pronouns.) 

1. P u and my™ brother came together ; that is, He m 
came with me and / came with him. Thou and /must see 
that he and she have it. 

Parsing. J is a Primitive Pronoun ; because, it is one of the 
original or first Pronouns used. 

2. When our hatred is violent, it iu sinks us beneath the 
level of the brutes. 

Note II. It, as a Pronoun, may be used in four ways ; namely, 
first, ordinarily ; second, inceptively ; third, expletively ; and fourth, 

vaguely. 

3. Ordinarily. Susan found my book and gave it to me. 

4. Inceptively. It is sweet to hear the honest watch-dog's 
bark bay deep-mouthed welcome. 

5. Expletively. Come, sirs ; fight it out. 

6. Vaguely. It is very hoi It is very cold. It rains. H 
snows. It will be pleasant to-morrow. 

4c. A Derivative Pronoun is a Pronoun whose immediate 

elements are a Primitive Pronoun, and one of the suffixes, self, 

selves, OWN. 

Lit. Def. The word, derivative, means belonging to that which 
flows from. 

AwfiJ. TYPvpnTATrmov (rr)ff*^ . • r f- fl^g j g^ from, OUt. 





194 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IT. 

Note III. In spoken language, self, selves, and own are used as 
suffixes ; while, in written language, self and selves are used as suf- 
fixes, and own is written separately. There is no reason for this 
distinction ; hence, in this Work, own is sometimes used as a suffix. 

7. I, myself, am here ; as we, ourselves, can testify. 

Parsing. Myself is a Derivative Pronoun ; because, its immediate 
elements are the Primitive Pronoun, my, and the suffix, self 

5. Derivative Pronouns are used in two ways* Inten- 
sively and Reflexively. 

6. A Derivative Pronoun is used Intensively, when it is 
used to give force to its principal noun, or pronoun. 

Lit. Def. The word, intensively, means like that which stretches 
or leads toward [another]. 

Anal. Intensively, sively, ; ten, stretch, lead, relate ; in, 

toward, against. 

8, Intensively. Lawyer. " Did you say that you, yourself, 
have known the plaintiff, himself, and the defendants, them- 
selves, for years r 

Witness. " Yes ! I, myself, have known the plainth% him- 
self, and the defendants, themselves, for years." 

*7 . A Derivative Pronoun is used Eeflexively, when it is 
used to recall its principal. 

Lit. Def. The word, reflexively, means like that which turns back. 

Anal. Reflexively. ively, ; flex = flee, bends, turns ; re, 

back, again. 

8. A Suffix Pronoun is a Pronoun used in the suffix of 
a Verb whose subject noun is in the nominative case, to show 
the person of the subject noun. 

In the English language Suffix Pronouns are used when the sub- 
ject noun is in the Singular Number only. They are ; — 
First Person ; m == I. 
Second Person ; st or t = thou. 
Third Person ; s or th = he, she, it. 

1. First P. I am here. Am I here? 

The Suffix pronoun, m, shows that the subject noun, personated 
by / has the First person. It also shows that this subject noun haa 
the singular number and nominative case. 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 195 

2. Second P. If thou laughed thou wil£ offend him. krt 
thou here ? 

The Suffix pronouns, st, t, show that the subject noun, personated 
by thou, has the Second person. It also shows that tliis subject 
noun has the singular number and nominative case. 

3. Third P. Martha is here. She likes music, and giveth 
much time to its study. 

The Suffix pronouns, s, th, show that the subject noun, Martha, 
has the Third person, and also, singular number and nominative 
case. 

Note I. Suffix Pronouns are a part of the means by which the 
Grammatical Relations between a subject noun and its verb are 
shown. (See Relations of Elements of Sentences, p. 57.) 

Note II. In the Greek and in the Latin, Suffix Pronouns are used 
in both numbers'of the Verb ; hence, in these languages, a Suffix 
Pronoun shows the person of its subject noun, and that its subject 
noun is. in the nominative case. 

Note III. A Verb, in which a Suffix Pronoun is used, is said to 
have the attribute person, and its Mode is called a Limited or Finite 
Mode. (See Person, Number and Modes of Verbs.) 

Third, The Attributes of Pronouns. 

9. A Pronoun always shows the Person of its principal 
or antecedent noun, and sometimes, shows its Gender, Num- 
ber and Case also. 

10. The Gender, Person, Number and Case are Rhetor- 
ical Attributes given to a Pronoun on account of its use or 
office as a Personator. 

Note I. A Pronoun is seldom found in any language which has 
any means of showing the Gender of its noun; hence, the English 
Pronoun, in the third person, singular number, becomes remarkable 
for the possession of this attribute or property. 

Fourth, Declension of Pronouns. 

1 1 . The Declension of the Pronoun is a mode of show- 
ing its Attributes, and the Means by which they are 
known. 

Note I. See the Declension of Nouns. 



196 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV 

TABLES. 

Fi££T Persons of Primitive Pronouns. 

Nominative. Objective. Possessive. 

Singular; I me my, mine, or of me. 

Plural; We us our, ours, or of us. 

First Persons of Derivative Pronouns. 

Nominative. Objective. Possessive. 

Singular; Myself myself myown, mineown, or 

of myself. 
Plural; Ourselves ourselves ourown, or of ourselves. 

* 
Examples. 

1. Narrator, /have before me a part of my books. A part 
of mine may be a part of me. 

2. Narrators. We have before us a part of our books. A 
part of ours may be a part of us. 

3. Narrator. I, myself, have before myself a part of my own 
books, or a part of mine own books. A part of my ow?i, or 
a part of mine own may be a part of myself. 

4. Narrators. We, ourselves, have before ourselves a part of 
our own books. A part of our own may be a part of our* 



Second Persons of Primitive Pronouns. 

Nominative. Objective. Possessive. 

~. 7 , . J Thou thee thy, thine, or of thee. 
bmgu ar, j y QU y QU your, yours, or of you. > 

Plural; You, ye you your, yours, or of you. j 

Second Persons of Derivative Pronouns. 

Nominative. Objective. Possessive. 

~. 7 . j Thyself thyself thine own, or of thyself 

toinguar, -j Yourself yourself your own, or of yourself 
Plural; Yourselves yourselves your own, or 

of yourselves. 



TABLES OF PRONOUNS. 



197 



5. Narratee. Thou hast before thee a part of thy books. A 
part of thine may be a part of thee; or, 

6. Narratee. You have before you a part of your books. 
A part of yours may be a part of you. 

7. Narratees. Ye or you have before you a part of your 
books. A part of yours may be a part of you. 

8. Narratee. Thou, thyself, hast before thyself a part of 2% 
ouw, or a part of thine own books. A part of thine own may 
be part of thyself ; or, 

9. Narratee. You, yourself have before yourself a part of 
your own books. A part of your own may be a part of yourself 

10. Narratees. Ye or you, yourselves, have before yourselves 
a part of ^owr own books. A part of your own may be a part 
of yourselves. 

Third Persons of Primitive Pronouns. 



Kom. 


Obj. 


Possessive. 


Sing. ; Masculine. He 


him 


his, or of him. 


Sing. ; Feminine. She 


her 


her, hers, or of her. 


Sing. ; Neuter. It 


it 


its, or of it. 


Plural Number ; They 


them 


their, theirs, or of them. 


Third Persons of '.Derivative Pronouns. 


Nominative. 


Objective 


Possessive. 


Sing. ; Masc. Himself 


himself 


hisown, of himself. 


Sing. ; Fern. Herself 


herself 


herown, of herself. 


Sing. ; Neut. Itself 


itself 


itsown, of itself. 


Plur. Numb.; Themselves 


themselves theirown, of them- 






selves. 



11. Narration, about a Boy. He has before him a part of 
his books. A part of his may be a part of him. 

12. Narration, about a Girl. She h&s before her a part of 
her books. A part of hers may be a part of her. 

13. Narration, about a Book. It has in it 2» part of its leaves, 
A part of its leaves may be a part of it. 

14. Narration, about Boys and Girls. They have before 



198 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

them a part of their books. A part of them may be a part of 
them. 

15. Narration, about Boohs. They h&ve in them parts of 
their leaves. A part of theirs may be a part of them. 

16. N, about a Boy. He, himself, has before himself & part 
of his own books. A part of his own may be a part of himself 

17. N, about a Girl. She, herself has before herself 'a part 
of her own books. A part of her own may be a part of herself 

1 8. N, about a Book. The book, itself has in itself a part 
of its own leaves. A part of itsown may be a part of itself 

19. N, about Boys and Girls. They, themselves, have be- 
fore themselves a part of their own books. A part of their own 
may be a part of themselves. 

20. N, about Books. The books, themselves, have in £fom« 
se/ves parts of their own leaves. A part of their own may be 
a part of themselves. 

Rules for Attributes. 

Rule I. A 'pronoun always shows the Person of its principal, 
and when its Modifications permit must show the Gender, Number 
and Case also. 

Rule II. A pronoun, which is used to personate two or more 
nouns, must take the Plural form or modification. 

1. Julia and Anna sing very sweetly, and they deserve much 
praise for their perseverance while learning. 

2. The boy put my hat here, and your hat there ; but, why he 
placed them so, I do not know. 

Rule III. A pronoun, which personates a noun used figuratively 
must show the attributes belonging to the noun in its figurative 
sense. 

3. I saw the moon in the sky leading her virgin host. 

Rule IV. The pronoun must show the Singular Number, when 
its principal has a distributive adjunct. 

4. We, George the Third, King of Great Britain, do hereby 
enjoin upon our subjects, the necessity of being truly loyal, etc. 



ANALYSIS OF THE PRONOUN. 199 

5. Every man should think that he is responsible for his 
own actions. 

6. They gave to each woman, as much food as her family 
needed. 

Note I: If the noun personated have the common gender and a 
distributive adjunct, it may be personated by he; although, many use 
"he, or she." Many use the personator, they; this in the English, is 
always a gross error. In many other languages, as, the Latin, Greek, 
etc., it is correct. 

7. Grant to every person in this house that he may be in 
the spirit. Grant to every person in this presence that she, 
or he may be in the spirit. 

Error. Grant to every person in this house, that (hey may be in 

the spirit. 

Analysis of the Pronoun. 



1. When 8 John 1 comes 2 , we 71 will take ap a 6 ride*. He" 
may ride ap the 6 black 6 , you 71 may ride 2p the 6 white 6 , and 9 I Tl 
will ride ap the 6 grey 6 horse 8 . 

General Analysis, Logical and Rhetorical. 

F 8( ^ F8 T. F S t, F S t, -f F S T. Translate. 

Grammatical Analysis or Parsing. We is a Primitive Pronoun. 
By its form, it shows the first person, plural number, nominative 
case, of its antecedent subject noun, which is the name of the nar- 
rators. Principle. We shows these attributes of its antecedent 
noun ; because, a pronoun, by its form, must show the person, and 
may show the gender, number and case of its principal. It is de- 
clined ; Sing., Norn., I ; Obj., me ; Poss., my, mine, of me. Plural, 
Nom., we (Here !) ; Obj., us ; Poss., our, ours, op us. 

2. The people prostrated themselves before him. 

Special Analysis. Themselves, logically, is the receiver or Third 
primary idea ; it is used, rhetorically, to personate the first object, 
people ; therefore, themselves, grammatically, is a Pronoun. It 
is a Derivative Pronoun ; by its form, it shows the third person, 
plural number of its antecedent noun, people ; according to Rule L 
It is declined ; Sing., Nom., Obj., Voc., himself, herself ; Poss., 

HISOWN, HEROWN, OF HIMSELF, OF HERSELF. Plural, Nom., THEM- 
SELVES ; Obj., themselves (Her©!); Poss., theibown, of them- 
selves. 



200* 



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ADJECTIVES CLASSIFICATIONS. 201 



III. Adjectives. 

The Science of the Adjective includes ; first, the Defini- 
tions ; second, the Classifications ; third, the Attributes, and 
the Means of Knowing them ; fourth, the Declension and 
Comparison ; and, fifth, the Syntax of the Adjective. 

First, The Definitions. 

1. An Adjective is a word, a phrase, or a clause, which is 
used, in a sentence, as an adjunct of a noun. 



Note I. Adjectives are sometimes called Adnouns, which is a very 
convenient, and a better term than Adjective. 

Examples. 

1. Large buildings are now standing where that grove once 

stood. 

Grammatical Analysis. Large is an adjective ; because, it is used as 
an adjunct of the nouo, buildings. 

Tliat is an adjective; because, it is an adjunct of the noun, grove. 

2. The rosyfingered Morn, mother of dews, opes wide the 
pearly gates of day. 

Parsing. Rosy-fingered is a phrase adjective ; because, it is a phrase, 
used 4s an adjunct of the noun, Morn. 

Second, The Classifications. 

2. Adjectives are classified according to two bases ; first, 
according to their signification ; second, according to the re- 
lation between tJieir ideals and the ideals of their nouns. 

9* 



202 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

3. First Classification. According to signijkar 
tion, Adjectives are Proper, and Common. 

Proper Adjectives. 

4:. A Proper Adjective is an adjunct, which distinguishes 
a class or kind named by a noun, from all other classes or kinds 
named by that noun. 

Examples. 

1. The Spanish people, or the Spanish, live in Spain. 

Parsing. Spanish is a proper Adjective ; because, it is an adjunct 
that distinguishes one class of people from all other classes of people. 

2. The American people are mostly descendants from the 
English, Scotch, Irish, and German. 

3. The Ciceronian style of eloquence has many admirers. 

4. John has read of Platonic love, and Socratic wisdom. 

5. The Hungarian nation was overpowered by the Russian 
and the Austrian nations. 

6. The inhabitants of Sweden are called the Swedish peo- 
ple or the Swedes. 

7. The Danish people or the Danes live in Denmark. 

8. When you are in Rome, do as the Romans or as the 
Roman people do. 

9. European, Asiatic, African, and American productions 
are articles of commerce. 

Common Adjectives. 

5. A Common Adjective is an adjunct, which names a 
property belonging to each individual in a class, or to each of the 
different classes, etc. 

Note I. The distinction between the Proper and the Common Ad- 
jective is the same as that between the Proper and the Common Noun. 
Both showing the distinction between a certain individual, and all other 
individuals of the same kind. The Noun does this by naming an es- 
sence, a substance, or an abstract property; the Adjective by naming 
a concrete property. 



DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. 203 

10. A single heroic act has gained for that brave girl a fast- 
ing fame. 

Parsing, i is a common Adjective; because, it is an adjunct 
which names a property belonging to each individual, act, and to the 
whole class, acts. 

6. Second Classification. According to the rela- 
tion between their ideals and the ideals of their nouns, Adjec- 
tives are Descriptive, and Designative. 

Descriptive Adjectives. 



7 . A Descriptive Adjective names a subordinate idea, 
which has either a natural, or an artificial relation to its princi- 
pal; or, a subordinate idea of the quantity, quality, posi- 
tion, duration, form, etc., of that which the noun names. 



Examples. 

1. Quantity. Too much time is given to small, arid too 

little time is given to great things. 

Grammatical Analysis. Much is a descriptive common Adjective, be- 
longing to time. It is descriptive, because it names a subordinate idea, 
having a natural relation to its principal, time ; or, it is descriptive, be- 
cause it names an idea of quantity. 

2. The day- spring awoke the morning call. 

Parsing. Day is a descriptive common Adjective, adjunct of spring. 
It is descriptive, because it names a subordinate idea, having an artifi- 
cial relation to its principal, spring ; or, because it names an idea of du- 
ration. 

3. " Much study is a weariness of the flesh. Let us hear 
the conclusion of the whole matter." 

4. Quality. • Evil deeds cause painful emotions in a good 
man's soul. 



Xote.— This root was evidently first used when paintings, or drawings^ 
were the mode of recording ideas, or thoughts; and, before these had coaie tub* 
mere lines, as in the more modern hieroglyphics, and alphabets or delineation 



204: GEAMMAE. [CHAP. IV 

5. u And, with some sweet, oblivious antidote." 

6. Should a gothic cottage be surrounded by a wooden, by 
a stone, or by an iron feflce ? 

7. Position. An inclined line is neither a horizontal, nor 
a vertical line. 

8. Parallel lines are equally distant at all corresponding 
points. 

9. The Western part of Massachusetts joins the Eastern 
part of New York. The former ^ is one of the Eastern *, and 
the Zatffer ^ one of the Middle States. 

10. Every place is south of the North pole. 

11. Duration. u Eternal life, and endless bliss are theirs." 

12. Yery many daz'Zy, semi-weekly, and weekly papers, and 
also many monthly, and quarterly periodicals are published. 

13. Form. Oval and elliptical figures resemble circular 
figures. 

14. The spreading trees and winding streams of a mountain- 
ous country form a diversified landscape. 

8. Descriptive Adjectives of quantity are divided 
into two kinds; Definite Adjectives of Quantity or Nu- 
meral Adjectives, and Indefinite Adjectives. 



9. Definite Adjectives of Quantity or Numeral Ad- 
jectives are adjuncts, showing how many values are meant ; and } 
also, which one of several values is meant 

10, Definite Adjectives of Quantity or Numeral 
Adjectives are divided into four kinds ; Cardinal, Ordi- 
nal, Multiplicative, and Distributive. 

11. Numeral Adjectives of the Cardinal kind are used 
in counting or in finding how many values are meant. 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 205 

15. One atom of water contains one atom of oxygen and 

one atom of hydrogen ; so that, nine pounds of water contain 

one pound of hydrogen and eight pounds of oxygen. 

Parsing. One is a descriptive Adjective, showing quantity definite, 
or is a numeral Adjective of the cardinal kind. It is a numeral Ad- 
jective, because it shows quantity definite. It is a cardinal Adjective, 
because it is an adjective used in counting or in finding how many 
values are meant. 

Note I. A or an (one) when used as a Cardinal Adjective, is used 
to restrict the meaning of a noun to one of the kind signified by the 
noun, but to no particular one, and so prevent the noun from being 
taken in a general sense ; thus, man mourns, means that all men 
mourn; but, a man mourns, asserts that any one man mourns. A or an 
are considered as one and the same word, and by some are called the 
Indefinite Article. 



12. Numeral Adjectives of the Ordinal kind are used in 
numbering or in finding which one of several values is meant. 

1 6. Read the first, second, and third examples. 

Parsing. First is a numeral Adjective of the ordinal kind ; because, 
it shows which one of several examples, taken in a certain order, is 
meant. 



13. Numeral Adjectives of the Multiplicative hind are 
those used when objects are taken in groups or sets. 

17. A onefold carpet is a one-ply carpet. A two-ply car- 
pet is a double carpet, or a two-fold carpet. A three-ply 
is a three-fold or triple carpet. 

Note II. The student should be exercised in the Numerals until the 
distinction between the cardinal and the ordinal becomes perfectly fa- 
miliar. For example, let him be directed to count certain objects; 
then to number them. 



206 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

14. Numeral Adjectives of the Distributive kind are 
those which represent a collection of objects taken in sets or groups. 

18. The books were taken one by one. The students left 
the schoolroom in pairs or two by two. 

Note III. Numeral Adjectives of the Cardinal and Ordinal kinds 
are frequently called Numbers. There is one way only in which a 
Cardinal Number can be spoken, and but one way in which an Ordinal 
Number can be spoken. 

15. Numeral Adjectives of the Cardinal and 
Ordinal kinds may be written in three ways ; namely, 
in Words, in Letters or Roman Characters, and in Figures 
or Arabic Characters. (See Arith. Numeration.) 

19. Word Numbers, Cardinal. 

None, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine. 
Ter elev'n tw'lve, thirt'n, fourt'n, fifteen, sixt'n, sevent'n, eight'n, nineteen. 

20. Word Numbers, Ordinal. 

Naught, first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth. 

Tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, etc. 

21. Letter Numbers, or Roman Characters* Cardinal and 
Ordinal. 

£°ug e ht, L, IL, III., IV., V., VI., VII., VIIL, IX. 
X.,XL, XIL, XIII., XIV., XV., XVI., XVIL, XVIII., XIX. 

22. Figure Numbers or Arabic Characters, Cardinal and 
Ordinal. 

O, I, 2, 3, 4, 5 9 6, 7 f 8, 9. 
JO, II, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19. 



16. An Indefinite Adjective of Quantity names an idea 
of value without telling how many, which one, or how much, is 
meant. 

23. Quantity Indefinite. At the large Fairs, we usually see 
many things, which are better than the ordinary kinds. The 



DESIGNATIVE ADJECTIVES. 207 

largest fruits and vegetables, the heaviest fleeces, and the 
swiftest horses are exhibited. Statements of the greatest 
yields per acre are made. Frequently, also, much skill is 
shown in producing furrows of an average width and depth, 
since neither the deepest, nor the widest are always the best. 
Very often, several young ladies ride long races over widely 
extended courses, without any apparent fear of the many dan- 
gers, which surround them ; and, because so few accidents 
do happen, some think there is really no danger ; others, 
that the increased excitement affords an abundant security 
by causing all to use more skill and caution. 

Note IV. As far as all includes every individual in a number or 
collection, it may be considered as showing a Definite rather than 
an Indefinite quantity ; but as far as it does not mean any particular 
number, it may be considered as Indefinite. 

Note V. A Descriptive Adjective, naming a part of what is 
named by the noun following it, is said to be used Partitively, or to 
be a Partive ; as, some of our money ; that is, some money of our 
money ; one of the boys, one boy of the boys. 

Designative Adjectives. 

17. A Designative Adjective is an adjunct, naming a 
subordinate idea, having an incidental relation to its principal; 
or, a subordinate idea of place, order, relation, etc., belong- 
ing to the idea named by the noun. 

Note VI. Designative Adjectives are frequently called Designa- 
tives. 

Note VII. The principal word of a Designative Adjective is some- 
times called its Subsequent or Consequent ; while, the same word 
used in another clause, is called the Antecedent of the Designative. 

24. That gentleman told the lady to look at those trees, 
which [trees] were once growing in the same spot, on which 
[spot] they were then standing. 

Parsing. That is a designative Adjective ; because, it names a sub- 
ordinate idea having an incidental relation to the noun, man ; or, be- 



208 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

cause, it directs attention to the position or place of the idea named by 

tne noun, man. 

2 he h a designative Adjective; because, it names a subordinate idea, 
having an incidental relation to the idea, lady ; or, because, it calls 
attention to the idea named in the noun, lady. 

Note YIII. The, when used as a Designative, requires either that 
its consequent, or that an adjunct of its consequent, should be ex- 
pressed ; hence, it is often called " The Definite Article." (See Theory 
of the Article, 24. 

18. Designative Adjectives are used in five ways; De- 
finitely or Demonstratively, Relatively, Interrogatively, Dis- 
tributive^ and Correlatively. 

Adjectives used Definitely or Demonstratively. 

19. A Designative is used Definitely or Demonstratively 

when its consequent is expressed. 

25. The fruit of this tree is in these baskets; the fruit of 
that tree is in those baskets. 

Parsing. The is a designative Adjective of fruit It is used definitely 
or demonstratively ; because, its principal or subsequent, fruit, is ex- 



Note IX. Since the, as a Designative, always requires either that its 
consequent, or that an adjunct of its consequent should be expressed, 
it follows that, as a Designative, the is always used Definitely or De- 
monstratively. In this respect, the agrees with a or an, and every. 

26. I know which book was taken. Contracted. 
Uhcontracted form. I know the book which book was taken. 

27. I do not know the person who sent you the present. I 
do not know who sent you this present. 

28. What money we had was taken away. Contracted. 

Uncontro.cted form. That money, or all the money, which money wo 
had, was taken away. 



DESIGNATIVE ADJECTIVES. 209 

29. We do not know what course we ought to take. 
We do not know that course, which course we ought to take. 

30. Richard shall have that time, which time he needs. 
Kichard shall have that time, which he needs. 

31. I know what messenger went, but I do not know which 
way he went. 

32. Amuse yourselves in whatever way best suits you. 

33. These are the same gifts ; the very self -same gifts. 

34. Othello. " I will a round unvarnished tale deliver 

Of my whole course of love ; what drugs, what charms, 
"What conjurations and what mighty magic, 
I won his daughter with." 

That is ; naming those drugs, with which drugs ; those charms, with 
which charms ; that conjuration, with which conjuration, etc. 

Note X. Them should never be used as a Designative. 

35. The traveller has all of those things. 

Vulgar. The traveller has all of them things. 

20. A Designative is used Relatively, when its consequent 
is not expressed. 

Note XL These Designatives are said to be used Relatively, because, 
when the consequent is not expressed, the narratee is obliged to go 
back [refer or relate] to the antecedent to find, or determine the conse- 
quent. Viewed in this light, all words used as Adjectives may be used 
relatively, except the, an or a, and every. 

36. This is the day, which was appointed for the trial. 

Parsing, Which is designative, used relatively^ because, its cons' 
quent, day, is not expressed. 

37. Henry shall have what time he needfi. Henry shall 
have that time, which time he needs. 

Note XII. What, used as a Designative, is equivalent to that which.; 
when what is used definitely, its antecedent i& to be found; but, when 
what is used relatively, its antecedent and its consequent are to be found. 

38. I saw the man who brought the hat. I saw the mao 
who [man] brought the hat. 



210 GRAMMAS. [CHAP. TV. 

Note XIII. Since who is the only English word, which, as an ad- 
junct, cannot have its consequent expressed, it follows that, as a desig- 
native word, who must be used relatively. See Syntax of Adj., Number. 

39. I know who did it. I know the persons who [persons] 
did it. 

Parsing. Who is a designative of the noun, persons, understood. 
It is used relatively ; because, its consequent is not expressed. 

40. Then one Hugo, who was only a serf, began to say 
unto his master. 

Faulty. Then one Hugo began to say unto his master, who was 
only a serf. 

Note XIY. Sometimes for emphasis, or for convenience, the Rel- 
ative adjunct may precede its antecedent. 

41. To whom, and for what, I divulge the following narra- 
tive, will appear in the sequel. 

Note XV. Some grammarians call these Designatives, Adjective Pro* 
nouns ; others, denying that they have any pronoun or personating office 
whatever, call who only an Adjective Pronoun, being misled by the fact 
that its consequent is always understood. See Syntax of Adj., Case. 

42. Mr. Brown owns the house, that — you saw. 

43. There are emotions, whose — thrill, no language por 
trays. 

44. Tell me, which man saw, and which person heard him. 

Note XVI. It is usually asserted in grammar, that " who relates to 
persons; which to children, brutes, and inanimate things; while, that 
relates to any of these classes." When it was first made, this assertion 
was as false as the following assertion would be if made now ; "The 
designates persons, a or an designates children, brutes, or inanimate 
things; while every designates any of these classes." 

The fact is, that <at the time the assertion in regard to who was first 
made, who and which were used indiscriminately in relation to persons, 
children, brutes, etc., and are still so used, and must continue feo be so 
used. As in the following example ; 

45. One of these men did it, but which [man], I cannot say. 
Incorrect One of these men did it, but who, I cannot telL 

46. Think of that life whose joys are eternal. 



DESIGNATIVE ADJECTIVES. 211 

The bad effects of the assertion about who and which have been and 
now are to give an ungrammatical appearance to all Standard Works in 
the English language, which were written before and during the earlier 
part of the seventeenth century; and, thus have made it necessary, 
either that these Standard Works should be corrected ( 1 ) or, that this 
strange assertion should be abandoned. 

In these Standard Works, numerous expressions like the following 
are found; — 

47. Art thou greater than our father Jacob, which gave us 
the well ? 

48. Our Father, which art in heaven. Our Father, who 
art in heaven. 

21. A Designative is used Interrogatively, when it is 
used in ashing questions, 

49. Whose house is that? Which of these houses is 
yours ? What means will secure your object ? 

Note XVII. Designatives, used Interrogatively, may, at the same 
time, be used definitely, or they may be used relatively ; except wJio, 
which must always be used relatively. 

50. Which girl prefers to do this ? Which [girl] of these 
girls prefers to do this ? 

51. Which horse may I ride ? Ans. Swiftfoot. 

Which horse may I ride ? Swiftfoot is the horse, which horse you 
may ride. 

52. Who is my neighbor ? 

53. What villains now disturb our rest? Ans. Rowdies. 

Answer. Rowdies are the villains, which villains now disturb your 
rest. 

54. What object is that? Ans. A man [is that object]. 

55. To which lady did you give the book, and to which of 
the children shall I give this fruit ? 

22. A Designative is used Distributively, when it sig 
nifies that a collection of objects must he taken singly. 

56. Equal rations were given to each soldier of the regi 
ment. 

Parsing. Eachris a Designative, used distributively ; because, it sig- 
nifies that each individual {soldier) of a group Regiment) is meant. 



212 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

57. He called his servants and gave to each — his charge. 

58. Every pupil in the room knew the lesson perfectly. 

Note XVIII. Every, like a or an and the, requires, either that its 
consequent, or that an adjunct of its consequent, be expressed. 
Hence, every, as a Distributive, cannot be used relatively. 

59. He gives to every one [person] liberally. 

60. In the married state, the same rights naturally belong 
Xo either [or each] party ; neither party having the right to 
govern the other — ; nor is either — bound to obey the cthef 
— implicitly. 

Note XIX. Either and neither designate one of two objects ; as>— 

61. Either of the two boys will answer my purpose. 
Faulty. May either of the four boys go ? Say, may any, etc. 
Note XX. Other is often used in opposition to one; as, — 

62. Here are two books ; one is mine, the other is yours. 

Note XXI. The individual thing, designated by a Distributive fol- 
lowed by one, is always regarded as the third person, and the singular 
number. 

63. Every one of us is an individual. 

64. Each of you is implicated in this transaction. 

65. Each feeling, each thought, and each act of life makes 
its impress on the character. 

66. Every season has its own pleasures, differing in kind 
from the others ; but the same in its purpose. 

Note XXII. Many followed by arc or a, has a Distributive signif* 
cation. £ 

67. Pull many a flower is born to blush unseen, and waste 
its sweetness on the desert air. 

23. Designatives are sometimes used Correlatively ; 
especially, in questions and their answers. 

68. Which road shall I take ? This road ; that road 

— ; the o'Jier road — — . 



THEORY OF ARTICLES. 213 

In this example, which and this are used correlatively ; because, 
which refers to this, and this refers to which. (See Subordinate Conned' 
tors.) 

69. What is that ? That is my coat. 

Note XXIII. When this, these, and that, those, are used Correlative- 
ly, this and these designate the nearer of two objects ; while, that and 
those designate the more remote of two objects. 

70. This boy may take a seat here with these boys; that 
boy may take a seat there with those boys. 

34. Those, who use the as a Definite Article, call 
an or a, an Indefinite Article, according to the follow- 
ing;— 

Theory of Artides. 

I. An Article is an adjunct, used to point out a noun, or to limit its 
meaning. 

II. There are two kinds of Articles ; the Definite and the Indefinite. 

III. The Definite Article is used to point out some particular object 
or class of objects. The is the only word used as a Definite Article. 

1. This is the boy, whom I sent to call the men. 

Analysis ; The is used to point out boy ; therefore, it is a Definite Article. See 
Analysis under example fifty-six. 

IV. The Indefinite Article is used to limit the noun to one of its 
kind, but to no particular one. An or a is the only Indefinite Article. 

a. An is used before a vowel, before a silent h t and before k, when 
the word is not accented on the first syllable. 

2. An artist painted a picture of an hippopotamus in an hour. 
Analysis ; An is found in the producer ; it is used to limit the meaning of artist 

to a single one ; therefore, it is an Indefinite Article. 

b. A is used before a word beginning with a consonant, or whose 
pronunciation commences with a consonant sound. 

3. At a wedding there should be a union [yunyun] of hearts. 

Thus, we see that the Definite Article the is a Designating Adjective, 
used Definitely; and that the Indefinite Article, an or a, is a Descriptive 
Adjective showing quantity or number. They agree in this one respect 
only ; neither of them is ever used except the noun to which it belongs, 
or an adjunct of its noun, is expressed after it. 

Many use the Theory of Articles, and many do not. We insert it; 
$rst, for the convenience of those who prefer to continue the use of it; 
and second, for the information of such of our own readers, as may have 
occasion to discuss it, or to use it otherwise 



214 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. TV. 

Attributes and Means of Knowing Them. 

25. Third, the Attributes of Adjectives, and the Means 
of Knowing them. Some Adjectives have the Attributes, 
Number and Case. 

Number. 

26. The Number of an Adjective is sometimes ; first, a 
logical attribute which an Adjective expresses or takes from its 
own meaning ; second, a rhetorical attribute which an Adjective 
derives from the number of its noun. 

Number, as a Logical Attribute. 

27. Number, as a logical attribute, belongs to 
Adjectives expressing quantity; of which, we have; 
first, those expressing Definite Quantities, or the 
Numeral Adjective; and second, those expressing In- 
definite Quantities. 

Examples. 

1. Definite Quantities. One man, in his time, plays many- 
parts ; his acts being seven ages. 

Parsing. One is a descriptive common Adjective ; or, one is a nu- 
meral Adjective of the cardinal kind. One has the logical attribute, 
singular Number ; because, it signifies a single individual. 

Seven is a numeral Adjective of the cardinal kind. It has the logi- 
cal attribute, plural Number ; because, it means more than one. 

2. The tenth pupil may read the first paragraph ; the seventh 
pupil may read the fifth paragraph. 

Parsing. Tenth is a numeral Adjective of the ordinal kind. It has 
the logical attribute, singular Numbe* ; because, it signifies but one. 

Note I. A numeral Adjective of the ordinal kind, has the Singular 
Number, logically, and it may have the Plural Number, rhetorically. 

3. "Which is the greater, three fourth parts of twelve, or 
four fifth parts of ten ? Which is the greater, three fourths 
of twelve, or four fifths of ten ? 

The ordinals, fourth, fifth, have the logical attribute, singular Num- 
ber; while, the ordinals, fourths, fifths, have the rhetorical attribute^ 
plural Number. 



NUMBERS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 215 

4. Indefinite Quantities. A man, who has any reason, 

torould prefer a few good books to many bad ones. 

Parsing. A is a descriptive Adjective of quantity definite. It has 
the logical attribute, singular Number ; because, etc. 

Many is a descriptive Adjective of quantity indefinite. It has the 
logical attribute, plural Number ; because, etc. 



Number, as a Rhetorical Attribute. 

5. This basket contains the fruit of these trees ; that basket 
contains the fruit of those trees. 

Parsing. This is a designative, used definitely, as an Adjective of 
basket It has the rhetorical attribute, singular Number ; because, by 
its form, it shows that the singular number is an attribute of its noun. 

These has the rhetorical attribute, plural Number ; because, by its 
form, it shows that its noun has this attribute. 

6. One man came this way ; the other men went the other 
way. 

7. One man came this way; the others went the other 
way. 

Parsing. Others is a designative, used relatively, as an adjective of 
men, understood. It has the rhetorical attribute, plural Number, to 
show that its noun, man, understood, has this attribute. 

8. Nine tenth parts of a dollar are equal to nine tenths of a 
dollar. 

The Adjective, tenth, has the logical attribute, singular Number; 
while, tenths has the rhetorical attribute, plural Number ; because, it 
shows, by the suffix modification, s, the number of its noun, parts, 
understood. 

Note II. In the English, when an Adjective, by a suffix modifica- 
tion, shows the Plural Number of its noun, the noun itself is not ex- 
pressed. 

9. His fortune is eight ninth parts of his brother's. His 
fortune is eight ninths of his brother's. 

Not used. His fortune is eight ninths parts of his brother's. 

In the Latin, in the Greek, and in other languages, Adjectives, 
showing the Number of their nouns, are used when their nouns are 

expressed. 



216 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

The Means of Knowing the Numbers of Adjectives. 

28. The few English Adjectives, which show the 
Number of their nouns, do so in three ways ; — 

First Logically, or by their meanings only. 

1. I saw a buffalo, an elk, one panther, two bears, thousands 
t of ducks, several deer ; but, I did not shoot any of them. 

f ; Second. Rhetorically, by a root modification. This 
and that are the only Adjectives belonging to this 
class. 

2. This boy may take these books, and that boy may take 

those books. 

These is . It shows, by its form, that its noun, looks, has the 

plural number. 

Note I. In such expressions as, these apples, the Number (plural) 
of the noun, apples, is shown in two ways ; first, by the suffix modifi- 
cation, s, of the noun itself; second,, by the form of its Adjective, these. 
That the form of the Adjective should show the number of its noun, is 
so hostile to the genius of the English language, that only two words, 
used as Adjectives, show the number of their nouns by their forms, 
whose principal words or nouns are expressed. These words are this, 
that, with their plurals, these, tliose. 

Third. By a suffix modification. An English Ad 
jective sometimes takes a suffix modification to show 
the Number of its noun, .when that noun is in the Plural 
Number and is not expressed. 

3. A third part, or a third. Two third parts, cr two thirds. 
Three fourth parts, or three fourths. 

Note II. Adjectives, thus pluralized, are often mistaken for nouns, 
and parsed as such, The practice has nothing to commend it. 

4. Some of the men cheered ; the others kept silence ; or, 
the other men kept silence. 

Case. 

29. The Case of an Adjective is a rhetorical attribute 
by which, a few English adjectives show or express the cases of 
their nouns. 



MEANS OF KNOWING CASES. 217 

30. In the English, when an Adjective shows the 
Case of its noun, the noun itself is understood. 

Note I. Who, and its compounds, whoever, whoso, whosoever, etOj 
show the Cases oi their nouns. 

Examples. 

1. Who [person] did this? I do not know the person 

who [person] did it. I do not know — who did it. 

Parsing. Who is a designative, used relatively. It has the rhe- 
torical attribute, nominative Case ; because, it shows, by its form (who) 
that its noun, person, has the nominative Case. 

2. Whose book is this, and to whom shall I hand it? 
Whose [person's] and to whom [person] shall I hand it ? 

Parsing. Whose is a designative interrogative Adj., used relatively. 
It is said to have the possessive Case ; because, it shows, by its form, 
{whose) that its noun, person's, understood, is in the possessive case. 

Whom, has the attribute, objective Case ; because, etc. 

3. The woman, of whom [woman] I spoke, is she whose 
father sold this house to the man who now resides here. 

Note II. Other, and its compound, another, shows both the Number 
and the Case of their nouns. 

4. One boy has the other boy's book. One boy has tne 
others book. 

Parsing. Other's is a designative, used distributively. It has the 
attributes, Prig, num., possessive. Case; because, it shows, by its form, 
that its principal word, boy's, has these properties. 

5. These boys may sit here, the other boys may sit there; 
or the others may sit there. 

6. Here are the other boys' slates ; or, here are the others' 
slates ; or, the slates of the others. + 



The Means of Knowing the Cases of Adjectives. 

31. In the English language, the Adjectives, who, 
and other j and their compounds, have suffix modifica- 
tions, to show the Cases of their nouns. 
10 



218 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

Examples. 

1. Who did this ? Whom did you see ? Whose book is 
this ? Of whom did you get it ? 

2. Is it another pupil's book ? Is it another's book ? Was 
it the other boy's ball ? Was it the other's ball ? Where is 
the other boys' play-ground? Where is the others' play- 
ground ? 

3. One boy must not use another boy's slate. One boy 
must not use another's slate. 

Declension of the Adjective. 

32. Fourth, the Declension and Comparison of the 
Adjective. The Declension of an Adjective is a mode of 
showing its Number and Case. 

Table. 
33. Declension of the Adjectives, This, 

That, Who, Other, etc. 

This and that show Number only. 

Singular. This, that. Plural. These, those. 

Who, and its compounds, show Case only. 



Nominative. 


Objective. 


Possessive. 


Who 


whom 


whose, of whom 


Whosoever, whoever 


whomsoever, 


whosoever, of whomsoever 



Whoso is defective in Case ; because, it lacks the Objective, and the 
Possessive Cases. 

Other shows both the Number and Case of its noun. 

Nominative. Objective. Possessive. 

Singular. Other other other's, of other 

Plural. Others others others', of others. 

Singular. Another another another's, of another. 

Another is defective in Number ; because, it lacks the Plural. 

Nominative. Objective. Possessive. 

Singular. Third third of a third 

Plural. Thirds thirds thirds', of thirds 

In like manner. Decline any of the ordinals ; as fourth, fifth, eta 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON". 219 

The Comparison of the Adjective. 



34. The Comparison of the Adjective is a mode of com- 
paring two, or more nouns, with reference to the same attribute 
or property. 

Note I. Many adjectives are not compared. Those, which have Com- 
parison, are generally Adjectives of quantity indefinite, and of quality. 

35. Adjectives have three Degrees of Comparison ; 

namely, the Positive, the Comparative, and the Swperla* 

tive Degrees. 

Positive Degree. 

36. TJie Positive Degree is attributed to an adjective, 
when it is used in comparing one noun with an indefinite num- 
ber of others, in reference to the same attribute or property. 

Examples. 

1. You have a large apple, and a small squash. 

Parsing. Large is a common Adjective of quantity indefinite. It 
has the attribute, positive Degree ; because, it is a comparison between 
one apple and all other apples or an indefinite number of apples. That 
is, compared with other apples, this one is large, although compared 
with squashes, it might be small. 

2. An apple is large, and a pea is small. An apple is large 
fruit ; a pea is small fruit. 

3. The dog killed a large rat and a small mouse. 

4. An elephant is very large ; a mouse is very small. 

Note II. Many suppose that the Positive is improperly called a 
Degree ; these overlook the fact, that every Adjective is a basis of some 
classification, and that every classification involves a comparison be- 
tween two or more. It may be a comparison between one and an in- 
definite number of the same kind ; or, it may bo a comparison between 
two of the same, or of different kinds ; or, it may be a comparison be- 
tween one and a definite number of the same kind, more than two. 



220 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

5. A tall man wore a round hat, a long coat, an old patched 
shoe. 

Comparative Degree. 

3*7. The Comparative Degree is attributed to an adjec* 
tive, when the adjective is used in a comparison between two 

nouns naming objects of the same, or of different kinds. 

-\ 
Note III. When the Comparative Degree is used, the latte* term 
of a comparison is connected to the former by the connector, than. In 
the old English, then was used instead of than. 

6. I would rather have wisdom than gold. I would rather 
have wisdom than I would have gold. I would rather have 
wisdom then [next] I would have gold. 

7. You have a larger apple than mine. Your apple is 
larger than my apple. 

Parsing. Larger is a descriptive Adjective of quantity indefinite. 
It has the comparative Degree ; because, it is used in a comparison 
between two apples, in reference to the same attribute, size. 

Exceptions to Note III. The connector, than, must not be used after 
the following comparatives ; after, former, hither, latter, hinder, upper, 
under, nether, inner, outer, utter ; and, also, anterior, exterior, inferior, in- 
terior, junior, major, minor, posterior, prior, senior, and superior; as, 
Bteel is superior to iron for cutlery. 

Note IV. When an individual is compared with the rest of its class 
or kind, the adjunct, other, should be used with the second term. 

8. They think gold is superior to the other metals. 
Error. They think that gold is superior to the metals. 

Note V. Sometimes both than and other are used with the latter 
term. 

9. This k^rse is better than the other horses. 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 221 

38. The Superlative Degree is attributed to an adjeo 
tive, when it is used in a comparison between one noun and a 
definite number of others of the same kind in regard to the same 
attribute. 

Note VI. When no definite number is stated with the Superlative, 
all, or the whole of that kind must be understood. 

10. The largest and most delicious fruits are produced by 
the most thrifty trees. 

Parsing. Largest is a A It has the attribute, superlative De- 
gree ; because, it compares one class of fruits with all other classes 
of fruits with reference to the same attribute or property, size. 

Note VII. When the Superlative Degree is used, the latter term 
must include the former. 

11. Gold is the most valuable of all metals. Gold is the 
most valuable of metals. 

Error. Gold is the most valuable of all the other metals. 

12. Avarice begets the meanest motives, and if indulged, 
produces the most despicable character. 

13. It is our duty to avoid every pernicious indulgence, 
not only the most, but also even the least pernicious. 

Note VIII. Double Comparatives and Superlatives should be 
avoided. 

14. Wisdom is better than houses and lands. 
Faulty. Wisdom is more better than houses and lands. 

15. Give your parents my most kind regards. 
Faulty. Give your parents my most kindest regards. 

Note IX. The double Superlative was formerly used to express 
gublime emotion, or intense passion. (See Bible, and English Works 
written during the fourteenth and some subsequent centuries.) 

Means of Knowing the Degrees of Comparison. 

39* The different Degrees used in tW Comparison 
of V stives, are formed in three ways ; 



222 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

First The Positive Degree is, the first or radical form 
of the Adjective. 

Second, The Comparative Degree, in its Regular Com- 
parison, is formed by adding the suffix modification, er, 
to the Positive; or, by using the adjuncts, more, less, 
with the Positive. 

Note I. G-enerally, the suffix, er, is used with words of one syllable ; 
while the adjuncts, more, less, are used with words of two or more 
syllables. To these usages, there are many exceptions. Some form a 
Comparative in both ways. 

Examples. 

1. This train is slow, but that train is slower. This is a 
slow tram, that is a slower train. The last testimony was 
positive, this is less positive, the next will be more positive. 
This is a happy time, but that was a happier time ; or, this is 
a more happy time ; the next time will be less happy. 

The Comparative Degree, in its Irregular Comparison, 
is formed by rising a word different from the Positive. 

2. This is a good house, that is a better house. This is a 
bad day, but that was a worse day. 

Third. The Superlative Degree, in its Regular Com- 
parison, is formed by adding the suffix modification, 
est, to the Positive form ; or, by using the adjuncts, most, 
least, with the Positive. 

3. That is a slow train, and that is a slower train, but this 
is the slowest train. One stone is precious, another is more 
precious, but this is the most precious. 

4. This metal is rare, that metal is rarer, but this metal is 
the rarest. That metal is rare, and that metal is more rare, 
but this metal is the most rare. 

The Superlative Degree, in its Irregular Comparison, 
is formed by substituting another word for the Positive. 

5. That hat is good, that is a better, but this is the best 



TABLE COMPARISON. 



223 



This is a bad habit, this is a worse habit, but this is the worst 
habit. 

40. The Comparison of the Adjective is shown by 



3 following ;— 


Table. 

REGULAR COMPARISON. 




Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative, 


New 


newer 


newest 


True 


truer 


truest 


True 


more true 


most true 


True 


less true 


least true 


Precious 


more precious 


most precious 


Precious 


less precious 


least precious 


Happy 


happier 


happiest 


Happy 


more happy 


most happy 


Happy 


less happy 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 


least happy. 


Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative, 


Good 


better 


best 


Bad 


worse 


worst 


Little 


less 


least 


Much 


more 


most 



Some Adjectives are defective in Comparison, as ; — 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

after aftermost 

further furthermost 

hither hithermost 

nether nethermost 

under undermost. 

The following Adjectives are redundant in Comparison;- 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Far 


farther 


farthest, farthermost, or 
farmost 


Fore 


former 


foremost, or first 


Hind 


hinder 


hindmost, or hindermcet 


In 


inner 


inmost, or innermost 


Late 


later, latter 


latest, or last 


Low 


lower 


lowest, or lowermost 


Old 


older 


eldest, or oldest 



224 





GRAMMAR. 


[CHAP. IV. 


Positive. 


Comparative* 


SuperlaUve. 


Out 


outer, utter 


outmost, outermost, 
utmost, uttermost 


Up 


upper 


upmost, uppermost 


North 


northern 


northmost, northernmost 


South 


southern 


southmost, southernmost 


East 


eastern 


eastmost, easternmost 


West 


western 


westmost, westernmost. 



Note II. Some think that more, most, less, when used as suffixes, 
form the Comparatives and the Superlatives of the words to which 
they are suffixed. It will, generally, be found better to consider them 
as Expletives or Intensives ; as, — 

Evermore, nevermore, furthermore; farthermost, uppermost, topmost, 
nethermost, fr outmost, middlemost, hindermost; nevertheless, causeless, 
sinless; etc., etc. 

Note III. Adjectives, which already signify fulness or complete- 
ness, do not admit of Comparison ; as, all, round, perfect, complete, etc. 
When such forms, as more perfect, most perfect, are used, they should 
be regarded as Intensives, Emphatics, Expletives, etc. 

Rules for the Attributes of the Adjective. 
Rule I. An Adjective signifying the Singular Number must 
be used with a noun in the singular number ; while> cm Adjec- 
tive, signifying the Plural Number, must be used with a noun 
in the Plural Number. 

1. One dollar is not enough ; nor two dollars ; nor three 
dollars. It will require many dollars. 

Rule II. An Adjective, having the modifications of Number y 
must take that modification which shows the number of the 
noun, to which it belongs. 

2. Put this hat into that box, and these hats into those boxes. 
Errors. Put these hat into those box, and this hats into that boxes. 

3. Give this apple to that boy, and these appies to the 
others ; or, give these apples to the other boys. 

Rule III. An Adjective, having a Plural modification, must 
not be used with a noun which is expressed. 

4. One sixth of a stake is white, two sixths of it are red, 
and three sixths of it are blue. One sixth part of a stake is 
white, two sixth parts of it are red, and three sixth parts of 
it are blue. 



ATTRIBUTES OF THE ADJECTIVE. 225 

5. This horse is one of your horses. This horse is one 
of yours. 

Exception. These, and those, as Adjectives, may be used with a 
noun either expressed or understood. 

6. These boys recited, and those boys did not ; because, 
these studied their lessons, and those did not. 

Rule IV. An Adjective, having Case modifications, must 
have that modification which shows the case of its noun. 

7. The boy, who (nominative) studied his lesson, is he, to 
whom (objective) you gave the book. 

8. This is the girl, whose (possessive) book was lost 

Rule V. An Adjective, having Case modifications, must not 
be used with a noun which is expressed. 

9. Two brothers live in town, the other brothers live in 
the country. Two brothers live in town, the others live in 
the country. 

Error. Two brothers live in town, the two others brothers live in 
the country. 

10. Who [person] gave you this most excellent book? 

Who shows that the Case of the noun, understood after it, is the 
Nominative ; hence, we do not say, " Who person." Some writers 
retain who as a pronoun, after discarding that classification of words 
usually known as Adjective Pronouns, not being able to dispose of who, 
as an Adjective, because its consequent can not be expressed ; and yet, 
these do not consider other's, the singular possessive, or others, the 
plural of other, as pronouns, although their nouns are always under- 
stood ; and for the reason, that, by their forms, they show the cases 
of their nouns. 

11. To one man, he gave a reward ; to the others [men] he 
gave a reproof. 

12. I saw the man, to whom [man] you sent the message. 

It is often urged that this construction of who must be wrong, " be- 
cause it sounds oddly." It does indeed sound oddly to hear one say, 
"who man," or "to whom man,' 1 and the reason is stated in the rule 
above. Notice this, the other man sounds very well, because we are 
accustomed to it ; but, the oGters men sounds strangely to our ears, 



226 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV 

which would not be the case, were we accustomed to use it, as is done 
with similar words in other languages. Be careful to what extent you 
make familiarity of sound the test of philosophical correctness. It is 
a proper test to the cultivated ear only. 

This omission of the noun is analogous to its omission after the pro- 
nouns mine, thine, etc., although the reasons are not the same. 

Note I. The modifications of these few Adjectives give us seme 
idea of those languages, as the Latin and Greek, and many of the 
modern European, whose Adjectives, by their forms, always show the 
G-ender, Number, and Case of their consequents. 

Note II. Some grammarians call an Adjective, whose noun is 
understood, " An Adjective used as a noun." This practice is wrong ; 
first, because it confuses the grammatical classes of words ; second, 
because it gives an erroneous parsing to the Adjective ; third, because 
nothing is gained by parsing the Adjective in this manner. An 
Adjective, whose noun is understood, must be parsed the same as if 
its noun were expressed. 

13. The industrious are filled with good, while the lazy are 
£lled with leanness. 

Industrious is an Adjective ; because, it is an adjunct of the noun, 
persons, understood. It is a common descriptive Adjective, in the pos- 
itive degree, etc. 

Erroneous Analysis. " Industrious is an Adjective, used as a noun. 
Neuter, third, plural, nominative Case." 

Note III. Designative Adjectives are sometimes called "Adjective 
Pronouns; " sometimes, also, they are called " Pronominal Adjectives." 
Phis is wrong; first, because, according to the definition of a pronoun, 
a pronoun is a word, used instead of or in the place of a noun ; an office, 
in which, a designative is never used ; second, because, a designative is 
always an adjunct of a noun, which is expressed, or understood. 

The practice of parsing Adjectives as nouns, has led the gram- 
marians into many absurdities. See Grammars, Adjectives, Adjective 
Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives, etc. 



Note. Now, beginning with the first example under Adjectives,, 
let the student give the Logical, the Rhetorical, and the Grammatical 
Analysis of each Adjective, 

Examples. 

1. Large* buildings 1 are 2 now 6 standing 2 where* that* grove 1 
once* stood 3 . 



, 



ANALYSIS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 227 

N.B. — Let the student writu this example, and draw one line 
through the vx>rds which art used in expressing the first part 
of the thought ; two lines through the words expressing the second 
part of the thought, and tJiree lines through the words expressing 
the third part of the thought 

Q 

General Analysis. PS = P S( . gg . Translation. 

Special Analysis. Logically, large is a subordinate idea of quantity, 
having a natural relation to the actor, buildings ; rhetorically, large is 
used as au adjunct of the subject, buildings, to which, its relation is 
shown by position only ; therefore, grammatically, large is a descrip- 
tive common Adjective. Large is a descriptive common Adjective of 
quantity indefinite. It has the positive degree and is compared, Posi- 
tive, large (Here!); Comparative, larger; Superlative, largest. 

Logically, thai is a subordinate idea of position, having an incidental 
relation to the actor, grove; rhetorically, that is used as an adjunct of 
the subject, grove, to which its relation is shown by its position only ; 
therefore, grammatically, that is a designative common Adjective. That 
is a designative common Adjective, used definitely. That shows that its 
noun, grove, is in the singular number. It is declined ; Singular, that 
(Here 1) ; Plural, those. That is not compared. 

2. TJie* Boston 6 mail 1 is 2 closed 2 at 4 ten 6 o'clock 6 . 

General Analysis. T S /. Translation. 

Special Analysis. The, logically, is a subordinate idea of relation or 
position, having an incidental relation to the receiver, mail. The, rhe- 
torically, is used as an adjunct of the subject, mail, to which its relation 
is shown by position; therefore, the, grammatically, is a designative 
Adjective, used definitely. The is neither declined, nor compared. 

According to " The Theory of Articles," the is parsed as follows;— 

The is a definite article, belonging to the noun, mail. 

Special Analysis. Logically, Boston is a subordinate idea of place, 
having an artificial relation to the receiver, mail; rhetorically, Boston is 
an adjunct of the subject, mail, to which, its relation is shown by posi- 
tion; therefore, grammatically, Boston is a descriptive proper Adjective, 
belonging to the* noun, mail. It is neither declined, nor compared. 

3. An 6 old 6 oak 6 tree 1 grew 2 on 4 the 6 top 6 of 4 a 6 mountain 6 . 

Sp>ecial Analysis. Logically, an is a subordinate idea of quantity, 
having a natural relation to the actor, tree; rhetorically, an\§ an adjunct 
of the subject, tree, related by position ; therefore, grammatically, an is 
a descriptive Adjective of quantity definite. ' It has the two forms, an, 
a. of which an is here used, because it precedes a word, beginning 
with a vowel sound. In like manner, analyze the Adjective, a. 

According to " The Theory of Articles," an is parsed as follows;— 

*' An is an indefinite article, belonging to the noun, tree. 11 



228 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IT. 

4. This space is just what I need for my posies. This 
space is just that space which space, I need for my posies. 

What is a contraction of taa£, an adjunct of the antecedent word, 
space, and which, an adjunct of the subsequent word, space; hence, 
what may be parsed as an adjunct, which, by contraction, is equivalent 
to the adjunct, that, of its antecedent, — -, and the adjunct, which, of 

the subsequent, -„ 

5. The book is where you left it. The book is in that place, 
in which place you left it. 

6. To die for one's country is glorious. 

Parsing. Glorious is a descriptive common Adjective, belonging 
to the clause noun, to die for one's country. It is in the positive de- 
gree, and is compared; Positive, Glorious (Here!); Comparative, 
more , less ; Superlative, most , least . 

7. Your spread-eagle sort of a man is rather too pompous a 
man to suit me. 

Parsing. Spread-eagle is a phrase descriptive common Adjective, 
belonging to the noun, sort. It is in the positive degree, and is com- 
pared; Positive, spread-eagle (Here I) ; Comp., more, , less 

; Sup , MOST , LEAST . 

8. The boat, which left here this morning, was damaged by 
a snag this afternoon. 

Parsing. Which left here this morning is a descriptive common 
clause Adjective, belonging to the noun, boat. It is not compared. 

9. I heard of the man to whom we sent the books, which 
were sent last week. 

Parsing. To whom we sent the books, which were sent last week, is 
a descriptive common clause Adjective, belonging to the noun, man. 

Which [books] were sent last week is a descriptive common clause 
Adjective, belonging to the noun, books, of the clause, to whom we 
sent the books. 

10. Happier days may be in store for us, but none myra 
profitable can be expected. 

General Analysis. Logically, happier, is a subordinate idea, having 
a natural relation to the actor, days ; rhetorically, happier i s a word 
adjunct of the subject, days; therefore, grammatically, happier is a 
descriptive common Adjective. It is in the comparative degree, and is 
compared; Positive, happy; Comp., happier (Here!); MORE ha, PY f 

LE6S HAPPY ; Sup., HAPPIEST, MOST HAPPY, LEAST HAPPY. 

11 . Our best thoughts should afford us supreme delight 



ANALYSES OF THE ADJECTIVE. 229 




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230 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

IV. Verbs. 

The science of the Verb includes ; first, the Definitions 
and Special Name of the Verb ; second, the Classifications ; 
third, the Attributes or Properties, and the means of know- 
ing them ; fourth, the Conjugation ; and fifth, the Syntax 
of the Verb* 

First, The Definitions. 

1 . A Verb is a word, or a phrase which, in a sentence, has 
the use or office of a predicate or affirmer. 

Literal Definition. The word, verb, means speech, sound, action. 

1. Thy word created 24 all, and doth create ; p 24 
Thy splendor fills 241 all space with rays divine ; 
Thou art,™ and wert, 2i and shalt be!* 24 

Grammatical Analysis. Created is a verb ; because, in this sen* 
tence, it is used as a predicate or affirmer. The numbers, 2, 4, show 
that created is a predicate, and therefore a Verb. 

Special Name of the Verb. 

2. The Special Name of the Verb is the simplest form of 
the predicate and the relator, to, as they are used in a first 
object clause connected by its form. 

1. Teach men to obey the laws. 

Parsing. Obey is a Verb ; because, in this sentence, it has the 
use or office of an affirmer. It is the affirmer of tlfe subject noun, 
men, and ip related to the subject by the relator, to; the clause 
being joined to another clause by its form. Taken with the relator, 
to, it forms the special name, To Obey, of the Verb. 

Second, Classifications of Veebs. 

3. Verbs are classified according to their formation, 
transition, and regularity. 



VERBS CLASSIFICATIONS. 231 

4. According to formation, Verbs are Word, and Phrase 
Verbs. 

5. A Word Verb is a word predicate. 

1. I came, I saw, I conquered. 

Grammatical Analysis. Came is a word Verb ; from the Verb, to 
come. It is a word verb, because it is a word predicate. 

6. A Phrase Verb is a phrase predicate; of which the 
principal predicate is the Principal Verb, and the auxiliary 
predicates are the Auxiliary Verbs. 

2. Thou shalt be?™ Thou shalt be conquering* ** the na- 
tions. The nations shall be conquered*™ by thee. 

Parsing. Shalt be is a phrase Verb, of which be is the principal 
and shalt is its auxiliary. It is a phrase Verb, because it is a phrase 
predicate. 

3. Will I have read the book ? Will I have been reading 
the book ? Will the book have been read by me? 

Note I. Word Verbs are sometimes called Simple Verbs, and 
Phrase Verbs are called Compound. Auxiliary Verbs are some- 
times called Helping Verbs ; because, they are used to help or assist 
in showing certain attributes or properties of the Verb. 

I j'. When used as Verbs, do, be, have, and will may be 
Principal, or they may be Auxiliary Verbs ; while, may, can, 
must, and shall are always Auxiliary Verbs. 

4 I do do this work. Thou dost do this work. He does 
do this work. She doeth this work. I am doing this work. 
This work is done by me. How do you do your work? 
How do you do? 

Parsing. Bo do is a phrase Verb ; of which, the latter do is the 
principal Verb ; while, the former is its auxiliary Verb. 

5. I will that thou shalt go to-morrow. He will come to 
thee. 



232 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. TV, 

6. He may go, but he can stay if he choose. He must 
choose ; if he do not, he shall go. 

8 . The different forms of a Verb are divided into 
two kinds ; called, the Principal, and the Derivative 
Parts of the Verb. 

The Principal Parts of the Verb. 

9, The Principal Parts of a Verb are fowr in 
number, and are generally known as ; The Verb-Boot or 
The First Principal Part, the Second, the Third, and the 
Fourth Principal Parts of the Verb. 

Note II. They are called Principal Parts, because by their aid, to- 
gether with that of a few Rules, the remaining or derivative Parts of 
the Verb may be formed very easily. 

The Verb Root or The First Principal Part 

10. The Verb-Koot or The First Principal Part 
of the Verb is the part which is used in forming the Special 
Name of the Verb. 

7. We desired the children to obey their parents. We 
saw the wild horses [to] run. 

Obey is the verb-root or the first principal part of the Yerb, to obey. 
The relator, to, is its sign. 

Run is the verb-root or the first principal part of the Verb, to run. 
Its sign, [to], is understood. 

The Second, and the Fourth Principal Parts, 

11. The Second, and the Fourth Principal Parts are 
those forms of the verb, which, generally, are made by suffixing 
ed to the verb-root 

To this definition, there are some exceptions. 

8. The children obeyed their parents. The children have 
obeyed their parents. 

Obeyed is the second, and also, the fourth principal part of the Verb, 
to obey. It is formed by suffixing ed to the Verb-Root, obey. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF YERBS. 233 

First Special Principle. A vowel, at the end of 
a verb-root, is dropped before suffixing ed. 

9. I loved thy law. I have loved thy law. We desired 
them to eat the food. We had desired them to eat the food. 

Loved is the second, and also, the fourth principal part of the Yerb, 
to love. It is formed by dropping the final vowel, e, and suffixing ed 
Thus, love-ed becomes loved. 

Second Special Principle. Y, ending a verb- 
root, is sometimes changed into i, and the vowel of the suffix is 
dropped ; and, in a few other instances, the e of the suffix is 
dropped. ** 

10: I laid the money, which I paid, on the counter, as I 
said. 

Laid is the second, and also, the fourth principal part of the Yerb, 
to lay. It is formed by changing y final to i, and dropping the e of the 
suffix, ed. Thus, lay-ed becomes lai-ed, which becomes laid. There is 
no good cause for this change. These three Yerbs would be improved, 
if they were written, layed, payed, sayed, as they were written formerly, 
and as other Yerbs, ending in y, now are ; as, stay, stayed. 

Exceptions. — In the English, about 160 Yerbs are found, 
which do not form their Second and Fourth Principal Parts 
by suffixing ed to the Verb-Root. This number is gradually 
becoming less. 

11. I gave you this book. The dog ran down the hill. 

Gave is the Second Principal Part of the Yerb, to give. It is formed 
by a root modification of the Yerb-Root, by which give becomes gave. 

12. The Third Principal Part of the Verb is formed 
by suffixing ing to the verb-root. 

12. The boy, being in school, was studying his lessons. 

Being is the third principal part of the Yerb, to be. It is formed 
by suffixing ing to the Yerb-Root, be. 



234 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

13. The Derivative Parts of the Verb are those which are 
formed from the principal parts, according to certain Rules. 

Note III. The Derivative Parts of a Verb are sometimes called 
the Secondary Parts of a Verb. The formation of the Derivative 
Parts of the Verb is shown under the Means of Knowing the Attri- 
butes or Properties of the Verb, and in the Conjugation of the Verb. 

14. According to transition, Verbs are Transitive, and 
Intransitive. 



Transitive Verbs. 

15. A Transitive Verb expresses an action requiring a 
receiver ; or, is a verb used in a sentence expressing a thought 
of three parts. 

1. We heard the children singing their song. 

Grammatical Analysis. Heard is a transitive word Verb, from the 
Verb, to hear. It is a remarkable Verb, because the e of the suffix, 
ed, is dropped in the formation of the second and fourth principal 
parts ; in which, heared becomes heard. Heard is transitive, because 
it names an action requiring a receiver ; or, because it is used in a 
sentence expressing a thought of three parts. 

Singing is a transitive Verb, from the Verb, to sing. 

2. Will the lady sing a song? The lady will sing a song. 
The lady will sing. 

3. Was your lesson well recited ? My lesson was recited 
very well. 

Parsing. Was recited is a transitive phrase Verb, from the Verb, 
to recite. Its principal parts are, to recite, I recited, reciting, recited. 

4. How do you do? Tou do do how? How are you? 
You are how ? 

5. That man is supposed to have discovered a new prin- 
ciple. They suppose that he has discovered a new principle. 

Parsing. Is supposed is a transitive phrase Verb. It is transitive, 
because its action requires a receiver, which is here the dependent 
thought, man to have discovered a new principle. 



INTRANSITIVE YEKBS. 235 

6. They thought that he was insane. He was thought 
to be insane. 

Intransitive Verbs. 

16. An Intransitive Verb expresses an action not requir- 
ing a receiver ; or, is a verb used in a sentence expressing a 
thought of two parts. 

7. Thou art, and wert, and shalt be. 

Parsing. Art is an intransitive word Verb, from the Verb, to be. 
Art is intransitive, because it expresses an action not requiring a re- 
ceiver ; or, is in a sentence expressing a thought of two parts. 

8. Some persons were walking, some were standing, and 
others were sitting. 

Parsing. Were walking is an intransitive phrase Verb, from the 
Yerb, to walk. It is intransitive, because, etc. 

Note I. It has been suggested that Intransitive Yerbs might, witk 
propriety, be called Complete Yerbs; because, they express the entire 
effects ; or, because, they do not require a receiver. Transitive Yerbs, 
with equal propriety, might be called Incomplete Yerbs ; because, they 
express incomplete effects ; or, because, they do require a receiver. 

9. The. birds were flying in the air, and the boy was flying 
his kite in the air. 

Parsing. Were flying is an intransitive or complete phrase Yerb. 
It is an intransitive or complete Yerb, because its action does not re- 
quire a receiver in order to complete the dffect. 

Was flying is a transitive or incomplete phrase Yerb ; because, its 
action does require a receiver in order to complete the effect. (See 
Chap. I., Cause and Effect.) 

Note II. Some Yerbs are naturally Transitive, because they always 
Bxpress actions requiring a receiver ; as, 

10. Animals eat, and drink. Men love, and hate. 

Note III. Some Yerbs are naturally Intransitive, because they gl» 
ways express actions which do not require a receiver ; as, 

11. Animals exist Brutes are animals. Men sit. 



23 % GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV 

Note IT. Some Verbs are variable in Transition, because &ey 
sometimes express actions which have no receiver, and, at other times, 
express actions which do have a receiver. 

12. The boy is running through the field. The soldiers 

are running bullets in their moulds. 

In this example, is running means to move swiftly, and is intransi- 
tive ; while are running means to cast, to pour, and hence, is transitive. 

Note Y. Some Yerbs are specially Transitive, because they require 
that the name of the receiver shall include the root of the Yerb ; as, 

13. She sleeps the sleep of death. I dreamed a dream. 

Sleeps is specially transitive ; because its action admits no receiver, 
except the idea, sleep. 

14. It was thought that this story was told to Herodotus 
by the Egyptians. 

15. The boy asserted that he gave the book to his brother, 
who was to carry it home. 

17« According to regularity in the formation of their 
second and fourth principal parts, Verbs are divided into 
Regular, and Irregular Verbs. 

Regular Verbs^ 
18. A Regular Verb is one whose second and fourth 
principal parts are formed by suffixing ed to the verb-root or 
first principal part 

Note I. A subsequent contraction should not be held as sufficient 
cause for calling the Yerb Irregular ; since, this would make all such 
Yerbs as love, hate, flee, hear, lay, shoe, etc., Irregular Yerbs. Again, 
if such verbs as love, hate, etc., are Regular, surely hear ought to be so; 
also, lay, pay, say, etc. Hence, we have not placed them in the List of 
Irregular Yerbs. That is, a Yerb should be called a Regular Yerb, if 
its second and fourth principal parts be formed by suffixing ed, no 
matter how many subsequent contractions be made. 



1. He ordered the guard to watch the prisoners. The 
guard watched the prisoners. The guard was watching the 
prisoners. The prisoners were watched by the guard. 



REGULAR VERBS. 237 

Grammatical Analysis or Parsing. Watch is a regular transitive 
word V erb. It is regular, because its second and fourth principal parts, 
watch, watchEB, are formed by suffixing ed to its verb-root, watch, 

19. Eegular Verbs are divided into four kinds or 
classes; namely, Uncontracted ; Contracted, Modified, and 
Contracted and Modified. 

20. Regular Verbs, Uncontracted, are those in which 
no change is caused by suffixing ed. 

2. I directed him to bond the goods and he proceeded to 
obey me, hut I did not stay until he had finished it. 

Directed is a Regular uncontracted Verb ; because, it is formed by 
simply suffixing ed to the verb-root, direct. 

21. Regular Verbs, Contracted, are those in which one 
or more vowels are dropped, when ed is suffixed. 

3. I hate to abridge any one's chance to hear beautiful 
music. 

Hate is a Regular contracted Verb ; because, the vowel, e, at the end 
of the root, hate, is dropped, before the suffix, ed. 

4. The people unshod, fled through the deep snow. 

Shod is a Regular contracted Verb ; because, shoe-ed becomes sho-ed, 
and sho-ed becomes shod; flee-ed becomes fle-ed, which becomes fled. 

22. Regular Verbs, Modified, are those in which one or 
more letters are changed, when ed is suffixed. 

5. The pupil cried, because he had no time to study his 
lessons. 

Cried is a Regular modified Verb ; because, cry-ed is changed to # 
cried. 

23. Regular Verbs, Contracted and Modified, are 
those in which om or more vowels are dropped and letters 
changed, when ed is suffixed. 

6. I said that I laid down the money to pay the bill. 

Said is a Regular contracted cmd modified Verb; because, say»ed 
becomes sai-ed = said. 



238 



GRAMMAR. 



[CHAP. IV. 



Examples of Regular Yerbs. 



Verb-Root. 




• 




TirtA Prin. Part. 


Second 


Third 


Fourth 


Principal Part. 


Prin. Part. 


Prin. Part, 


To ask 


m I asked 


asking 


asked 


Abridge . 


abridged 


abridging 


abridged 


Bond 


bonded 


bonding 


bonded 


Credit 


credited 


crediting 


credited 


Cry 


cried 


crying 


cried 


Debit 


debited 


debiting 


debited 


Enter 


entered 


entering 


entered 


. Flee 


fled 


fleeing 


fled 


Hear 


heard 


hearing 


heard 


Hate 


hated 


hating 


hated 


Love 


loved 


loving 


loved 


Lay 


laid 


laying 


laid 


Mourn 


mourned 


mourning 


mourned 


Obey 


obeyed 


obeying 


obeyed 


Play 


played 


playing 


played 


Pay 


paid 


paying 


paid 


Provide 


provided 


providing 


provided 


Sail 


sailed 


sailing 


sailed 


Say 


said 


saying 


said 


Stay 


stayed 


staying 


stayed 


Shoe 


shod 


shoeing 


shod 


Study 


studied 


studying 


studied 


Walk 


walked 


walking 


walked 



Irregular Verbs. 

24. An Irregular Verb is one whose second and fourth 
•rincipal parts are not formed by suffixing ed to the verb-root or 
'rst principal part. 

7. Pie desires me to be still. I was still. 

Parsing. Be is an irregular, intransitive, word Verb, from the 

Verb, to be. Its principal parts are ; . It is irregular, because it 

^oes not form its second and fourth principal parts by suffixing ed to 
jhe first principal part or verb-root. 

Note II. The principal parts of an Irregular Verb must be learned 
from the List of Irregular Verbs, which cannot be studied too care- 
fully nor learned too thoroughly. 

At the beginning of the present century, this List contained ovei 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



239 



200 Verbs. It has been made less by the common and common sense 
tendency of giving Regular forms to Yerbs which have long been used 
as Irregular — a tendency which should be encouraged, because, the 
proper use of the Irregular Yerbs of the English, or of any other 
language, is one of the most difficult parts in the study of that lan- 
guage. 

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

First Prin. Part Second Prin. Part. Third Prin.Part. Fourth Prin, Part 



To abide 


I abode,or abided abiding 


abode. 


Arise 


arose 


arising 


arisen. 


Be 


was 


being 


been. 


Bear 


bore, or bare 


bearing 


borne, or born. 


Beat 


beat 


beating 


beaten, or beat. 


Begin 


began 


beginning 


begun. 


Bend 


bent, or bended 


bending 


bent, or bended. 


Bereave 


bereaved, bereft 


bereaving 


bereaved, bereft. 


Beseech 


besought 


beseeching 


besought. 


Bid 


bid, or bade 


bidding 


bidden, or bid. 


Bind 


bound 


binding 


bound. 


Bite 


bit 


biting 


bitten, or bit. 


Bleed 


bled 


bleeding 


bled. 


Blow 


blew 


blowing 


blown. 


Break 


broke 


breaking 


broken. 


Breed 


bred 


breeding 


bred. 


Bring 


brought 


bringing 


brought. 


Build 


built, or builded 


building 


built, or builded. 


Burst 


burst 


bursting 


burst. 


Buy 


bought 


buying 


bought. 


Cast 


cast 


casting 


cast. 


Catch 


caught, catched 


catching 


caught, catched. 


Chide 


chid 


chiding 


chidden, or chid. 


Choose 


chose 


choosing 


chosen. 


Cleave 


cleft, or clove 


cleaving 


cleft, or cloven. 


Cling 


clung 


clinging 


clung. 


Clothe 


clothed, or clad 


clothing 


clothed, or clad. 


Come 


came 


coming 


come. 


Cost 


cost 


costing 


cost. 


Crow 


- crowed, or crew 


crowing 


crowed. 


Creep 


crept 


creeping 


crept. 


Cut 


cut 


cutting 


cut. 


Dare 


dared, or durst 


daring 


dared. m 


Deal 


dealt, or dealed 


dealing 


dealt, or dealed. 


Dig 


digged, or dug 


digging 


digged, or dug. 


Do 


did 


doing 


done. 


Draw 


drew 


drawing 


drawn. 


Dream 


dreamed, dreamt 


dreaming 


dreamed, dreamt 


Drive 


drove 


driving 


driven. 


Drink 


drank 


drinking 


drunk. 


Dwell 


dwelt, dwelled 


dwelling 


dwelt, dwelled. 


Eat 


ate, or eat 


eating 


eaten. 



240 



GRAMMAR. 



[CHAP. IV. 



First Prin. Part. Second Prin. Part. Third Prin. Part. Fourth Prin. Part 



To fall 
Feed 
Feel 
Fight 
Find 
Fling 
Fly 

Forsake 
Freeze 
Get 
Gild 
Gird 
Give 
Go 

Grave 
Grind 
Grow 
Hang 
Have 
Heave 
^ Hew 
Hide 
Hit 
Hold 
Hurt 
Keep 
Kneel 
Knit 
Know 
Lade 
Lean 
Lead 
Leave 
Lend 
Let 
Lie 
Light 
Lose 
Make 
Mean 
Meet 
Mow 
±»ut 

Quit « 
Read 
Reave 
Rend 
Hid 



/fell 

fed 

felt 

fought 

found 

flung 

flew 

forsook 

froze 

got 

gilded, or gilt 

girded, or girt 

gave 

went 

graved 

ground 

grew 

hanged, or hung 

had 

heaved, or hove 

hewed 

hid 

hit 

held 

hurt 

kept 

kneeled, or knelt 

knit, or knitted 

knew 

laded 

leaned, or leant 

led 

left 

lent 

let 

lay 

lighted, or lit 

lost 

made 

meant 

met 

mowed 

put 

quitted, or quit 

read 

reft, or reaved 

rent 

rid 



falling 


fallen. 


feeding 


fed. 


feeling 


felt. 


fighting 


fought. 


finding 


found. 


flinging 


■ flung. 


flying 


flown. 


forsaking 


forsaken. 


freezing 


frozen. 


getting 


got, or gotten. 


gilding 


gilded, or gilt. 


girding 


girded, or girt. 


giving 


given. 


going 


gone. 


graving 


graved, or graven. 


grinding 


ground. 


growing 


grown. 


hanging 


hanged, or hung. 


having 


had. 


heaving 


heaved, or hoven. 


hewing 


hewed, or hewn. 


hiding 


hidden, or hid. 


hitting 


hit. 


holding 


held. 


hurting 


hurt. 


keeping 


kept. 


kneeling 


kneeled, or knelt 


knitting 


knit, or knitted. 


knowing 


known. 


lading 


laden, or laded. 


leaning 


leaned, or leant. 


leading 


led. 


leaving 


left. 


lending 


lent. 


letting 


let. 


lying 


lain. 


lighting 


lighted, or lit. 


losing 


lost. 


making 


made. 


meaning 


meant. 


meeting 


met. 


mowing 


mowed, or mown* 


putting 


put. 


quitting 


quitted, #r qait. 


reading 


read. 


reaving 


reft, or reaved. 


rending 


rent. 


ridding 


rid. 



IIIREGULAB VEKBS. 



241 



To ride 

Ring 
Rise 

Rive 
Ran 

Saw- 
See 
Seek 
Seethe 
Sell . 
Send 
Set 
Shake 
Shave 
Shear 
Shed 
Shine 
Show 
Shoot 
Shut 
Shred 
Shrink 
Sing 
Sink 
Sit 
Slay 
Sleep 
Slide 
Sling 
Slink 
Slit 
Smite 
Sow 
Speak 
Speed 
Spend 
Spill 
Spin 
Spit 
Split 
Spread 
Spring 
Stand 
Steal 
Stick 
Sting 
Stride 
Strike 
String 
Strive 



11 



/rode 

rung, or rang 

rose 

rived 

ran 

sawed 

saw 

sought 

seethed, or sod 

sold 

sent % 

set 

shook 

shaved 

sheared 

shed 

shone, or shined 

showed 

shot 

shut 

shred 

shrunk, or shrank 

sung, or sang 

sunk, or sank 

sat 

slew 

slept 

slid 

slung 

slunk 

slit, or slitted 

6mote 

sowed 

spoke 

sped 

6pent 

spilt, or spilled. 

spun 

spit, or spat 

split. 

spread 

sprung, sprang 

stood 

stole 

stuck 

stung 

strode, or strid 

struck 

strung 

strove 



Third Prin. Part. 


Fourth Prin. Part. 


riding 


ridden, or rode. 


ringing 


rung. 


rising 


risen. 


riving 


riven, or rived. 


running 


run. 


sawing 


sawed, or sawn 


seeing 


seen. 


seeking 


sought. 


seething 


seethed, sodden. 


selling 


sold. 


sending 


sent. 


setting 


set. 


shaking 


shaken. 


6having 


shaved, or shaven. 


shearing 


sheared, or shorn 


shedding 


shed. 


shining 


shone. 


showing 


showed, or shown. 


shooting 


shot. 


shutting 


shut. 


shredding 


shred. . 


shrinking 


shrunk. 


singing 


sung. 


sinking 


sunk. 


sitting 


sat. 


slaying 


slain. 


sleeping 


slept. 


sliding 


slidden, or slid. 


slinging 


slung. 


slinking 


slunk. 


slitting 


slit, or slitted. 


smiting 


smitten, or smit 


sowing 


sowed, oi' sown. 


speaking 


spoken. 


speeding 


sped. 


spending 


spent. 


spilling 


spilt, or spilled 


spinning 


spun. 


spitting 


spit. 


splitting 


split. 


spreading 


spread. 


springing 


sprung. 


standing 


stood. 


stealing 


stolen. 


sticking 


stuck. 


stinging 


stung. 


striding 


stridden. 


striking 


struck. 


stringing 


strung. 


striving 


striven 



212 


GRAMMAR. 


[CHAP. IV 


First Prin. Part. Second Prin. Part. 


Third Prin. Part. 


Fourth Prin. Part. 


To strow 


/ s trowed 


strowing 


s trowed, strown. 


Swear 


swore 


swearing 


sworn. 


Sweat 


sweated, sweat 


sweating 


sweated, or sweat. 


Sweep 


swept 


sweeping 


swept. 


Swell 


swelled 


swelling 


swelled, swollen. 


Swim 


swum, or swam 


swimming 


swum. 


Swing 


swung 


swinging 


swung. 


Take 


took 


taking 


taken. 


Teach 


taught 


teaching 


taught. 


Tear 


tore 


tearing 


torn. 


Tell 


told 


telling / 


told. 


Think 


thought 


thinking 


thought. 


Thrive 


thrived, throve 


thriving 


thrived, thriven. 


Throw 


threw, throwed 


throwing 


thrown. 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrusting 


thrust. 


Tread 


trod 


treading 


trodden, or trod. 


Wake 


waked, or woke 


waking 


waked. 


Wax 


waxed 


waxing 


waxen. 


Wear 


wore 


wearing 


worn. 


Weave 


weaved, or wove 


weaving 


weaved, or woven. 


Weej) 


wept 


weeping 


wept. 


Win 


won 


winning 


won. 


Wind 


wound 


winding 


wound. 


Wont 


wonted, or wont 


wonting 


wonted, or wont. 


Work 


worked, wrought 


working 


worked, wrought. 


Wring 


wrung 


wringing 


wrung. 


Write 


wrote 


writing 


written. 


Note III. The larger portion 


of the Verbs now in the List might 


very easily 


be changed to Regular 


forms, as euphonious as the Irregu* 


lar forms. 


As:— 







To draw, I drawed, drawing, drawed, instead of the Irregular forms, 
to draw, I drew, drawing, drawn. 

When a Verb is redundant in form, students should be encouraged 
to use its Regular forms only ; at the same time, they should be made 
acquainted with its Irregular forms, which they would soon learn to 
recognize as Archaisms or obsolete forms. This practice would greatly 
reduce the List of Irregular Verbs, and at the same time, simplify the 
use of these Verbs. 



Third, The Attributes or Properties of Verbs, and the Means 
of Knowing them. 

25. Verbs have four Attributes or Properties; namely. 
Voice, Person and Number, Mode, and Tense. 



VOICES OF THE VERB. 



Voice. 



26. Voice is a logical attribute, which the verb derites 
from the logical character of its subject noun. 

2 H . Verbs have two Voices ; the Active^ and the 
Passive. 

Active Voice. 

28. The Active Voice is attributed to a verb, whose sub- 
ject noun names an actor or first primary idea. 



1. As the spangles in the sunny rays 

Shine around the silver snow, the pageantry 
Of heaven's bright army glitters in thy praise. 

Parsing. Shine is an irregular, intransitive, simple Verb, from the 
Verb, to shine ; its principal parts are ; to shine, spangles shone, shining, 
shone. It has the logical attribute, active Voice ; because, its subject 
noun, spangles, names the actor or first primary idea. 

2. Has it been, is it now, and will it again be ? It has 
been, it is now, and will be again. 

3. If I do go, will he stay until I come back? If thou 
dost go, he will stay until thou comest back. 

4. Thy chains, the unmeasured universe surround. 

Parsing, Surround is a Verb ; from the Verb, to surround ; its 

prin. parts are ; . It has the logical attribute, active Voice ; be- 
cause, its subject noun, chains, etc. 

5. We saw them run. 

Parsing. Pun [to run] is a Verb ; from the Verb, to run ; its 

prin. parts are ; . It has the active Voice ; because, its subject 

noun, which is personated by them, names the actor. 

6. The teacher desired the students to study their lessona 
The teacher desired them to study. 



244 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IT. 

Parsing. Study is a Yerb ; from the Yerb, to study ; its prin. 

parts are ; . It has the active Voice, because, etc. 

7. Saturn is said to have come into Italy. 

Parsing. Have come is an irregular, intransitive, phrase Yerb ; 

from the Yerb, to come ; its prin. parts are ; . It has the logical 

attribute, active Yoice ; because its subject noun, Saturn, is, etc. 

8. " Love thy neighbor as thyself" has the highest auth >r- 
ity ; because, it is a Divine precept. 

Parsing. Has is an irregular, intransitive, simple Yerb ; from 'he 

Yerb, to have; its prin. parts are; . It has the logical attribute, 

active Yoice ; because, its clause subject noun, love thy neighbor x as thy' 
self, is the actor or first primary idea. 

Passive Voice. 



29. The Passive Voice is attributed to a verb, whose sub- 
ject noun names the receiver or third primary idea. 

9. The unmeasured universe is surrounded by Thy chains. 

Parsing. Is surrounded is a regular, transitive, compound Yerb, from 
the Yerb, to surround ; its prin. parts are ; . It has the logical at- 
tribute, passive Yoice ; because, its subject noun, universe, names the 
receiver or third primary idea. 

10. They were seen to run. 

Parsing. Were seen [was seen] is a Yerb ; from ; its 

prin. parts are ; . It has the logical attribute, passive Yoice ; be- 
cause, its subject noun, they [them] to run, names the receiver or third 
primary idea. (See Chap. III., Predicates.) 

11. "Dust thou art, to dust returnest" was not spoken of 
the soul. 

Parsing. Was spoken is a Yerb ; from ; its prin. pai aj^. 

are : . It has the passive Yoice ; because, its clause subject noun, 

etc. 

Note I. The Transitive are the only Yerbs which can have the 
Passive Yoice. Intransitive Yerbs cannot have the Passive Yoice. 
Hence, the absurdity of the expression, " Passive Yerbs are Intransi- 
tive ; " and also of the expression, ' • "When a Transitive Yerb is put 
uto the Passive Yoice, it becomes Intransitive." 



MEANS OF KNOWING VOICES. 245 

Note TL Some Verbs, naturally transitive, are seldom used in th© 
Passive Voice ; as. I have a hat, whose passive form, A hat is had by 
^rne, is seldom used, although grammatically correct. For the Passive 
form of the Verb, to have, the Passive form of the Verbs, to hold, to 
own, is commonly used ; as, A hat is owned by me. In a few instances, 
to have is used in sentences passively constructed ; as, Thy works are 
had in remembrance before me. The possession of the land is held by tJie 
guardians of the children. The guardians of the children have the pos- 
session of the land. 

Note III. In the Latin and Greek languages, some Verbs are found, 
which are always used in the passive forms or modifications, while 
their subject nouns are names of actors or first primary ideas. These 
are called Deponent Verbs. 

The Means of knowing the Voices of Verbs. 

30. The Voice of a Verb may be known in two 
ways ;— 

First By its form only. A Verb in any form, which 
is not periphrastic, is in the Active Voice. 

12. I am. He is. They are. 

The Verb, am, is in its simple form ; hence, it is known to be in the 
active Voice. 

13. I do think. He does think. They did think. 

The Verb, do think, is in its emphatic form ; hence, it is known 
to be in the active Voice. 

Second. By the principal Verb of a periphrastic form. 
"When the principal Verb of a periphrastic form ends 
la ing, or is the third principal part, the Verb is in the 
Active Voice ; but, when the principal Verb is the 
fourth principal part, the Verb is in its Passive Voice. 

14. The man was driving the horses. The girls were dan* 
cing in the hall. 

The Verb, was driving, may be known to be in the Active Voice, 
because it is a periphrastic form, whose principal Verb, driving, is th* 
third principal part of the Verb, to drive. It may also be known by 
the suffix, ing, of the verb-root, drive. 



246 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

15. The horses were driven by the man. The parents 
were obeyed by their children. 

The Verb, were driven, may be known to be in the Passive Voice, 
because it is periphrastic, and has driven, the fourth principal part of 
the Verb, to drive, as its principal Verb. 

Person and Number of Verbs. 

3 1 • Person and Number are attributed to a verb, whose 
sxjbject noun is in the nominative case. (See Suffix Pronouns.) 

Note I. The idea seems to -be that attributing the Person and Num- 
ber of a subject to its Verb, limits the action of the Verb to the same 
relation to the narration, and to the same number of actions, as the re- 
lation and number of the individuals, belonging to the subject noun. 
Hence, when these attributes are attributed to the Verb, the Verb is 
said to be Limited by the Person and Number of its subject noun ; but, 
when the Person and Number of the subject noun are not attributed 
to its Verb, the Verb is said to be Unlimited by the Person and Num- 
ber of its subject noun. 

Examples. 

1. Am I here? I am here. Are we here? We are 
here. 

Grammatical Analysis. Am is an irregular intransitive simple Verb, 

from the Verb, to be ; its prin. parts are ; . It is in the active 

voice, and has the rhetorical attributes, first Person and singular Num- 
ber. Am is limited by the first Person and singular Number, because 
its subject noun, the name of the narrator personated by /, is in the 
nominative case and has these attributes. 

2. Do I, John, write these things ? I, John, do write these 
things. 

3. Are the wild birds singing their native songs ? The 
wild birds are singing their native songs. 

4. Art thou here ? Thou art here. Are ye here ? Ye 

are here. 

Parsing. Art is Verb ; from the Verb, ; its prin. parts 

are j . it is in the active voice, and is limited by the second Person 

and the singular Number ; because, its subject noun, the name of the 
narratee, personated by thou, is in the nominative case, and has the 
#ec. per. and sing, number. 



PERSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS. 247 

5. John is here, and Sarah is here, so that both persona 
are here. 

Is has the attributes, active voice, third Person and the singular 
Number; because, its subject, John, etc. 

Note II. When the subject nouns of a compound contracted sen- 
tence, joined by the connector and, are the only parts expressed, the 
Yerb must be limited by the Plural Number. 

6. John is studying, and James is studying, and Jafte is 
studying, and Martha is studying. John, James, Jane, and 
Martha are studying. 

Are studying has the active voice, third Person, and the plural num- 
ber. Are studying is limited by the plural Number, although its own 
subject, Martha, is in the singular ; because, it is the only verb ex- 
pressed in a compound contracted sentence, whose clauses are joined 
by the connector, and. 

7. Either John is standing, or James is standing. Either 
John or James is standing. 

The last Verb, is standing, is limited by the third Person, and singu- 
lar Number, according to the general condition on which Yerbs take 
Person and Number. Is standing is not limited by the plural Number, 
like the Yerb, are standing, because the clauses to which it belongs are 
not joined by the connector, and. 

8. " The Wrecker's Daughter" is a fine musical composi- 
tion. 

The Yerb, is, in this example, is limited by the third Person, and 
the singular Number, because its phrase subject- noun, Tlie Wrecker's 
Daughter, is in the nom. case, and has the third person and singular 
number. 

9. For a person to err is human, but for a person to forgive 
is divine. For one to err is human, for one to forgive is 
divine. To err is human ; to forgive, divine. 

10. They were known to be the men by the officer. 

The Yerb, were known, is really the amrmer of the clause subject, 
they [them] to be the men, and therefore, should be limited by the per- 
son and number of its clause subject noun, which are the third person 
and the singular ; but, instead of this, the Yerb, were known, is limited 
by the third Person and the plural Number, as if it were really the 
amrmer of the subject noun, personated by they. This may be illus- 
trated by comparing this passively constructed with its corresponding 
actively constructed sentence. 



248 



GRAMMAR. 



[CHAP. IV. 



Actively. The officer knew them jfco be the men. 
Passively, real form. Them to be the men was known by the officer. 
Passively, apparent form. They were known to be the men by the 
officer. 

11. The j were requested by the invalid to give him some 
water. 

Actively. The invalid requested them to give him some water. 
True Passive. Them to give him some water, was requested by the 
•nvalid. 

Note III. Since Person and Number are merely rhetorical attri- 
butes, and are attributed to a Verb when its subject noun is really in 
the Nominative Case, it follows, as a matter of course, that Person and 
Number are not to be attributed to a Verb whose subject noun is not 
in the Nominative Case. That is, Number and Person are not attrib- 
uted to a Verb, whose subject noun is in the Objective, or in the Pos- 
sessive Case. 

12. He is said to have come into Italy. 

The Verb, have come, is not limited by the person and number of its 
subject, which is personated by he, because this subject is apparently 
in the nominative, but really in the objective case. 

13. Jane heard the birds [to] sing. 



Comparative Parsing. 



a r Heard is limited ; because, it 
takes Person and Number. 

b. Heard takes person and num- 
ber; because, its subject noun, Jane, 
has the Nominative Case. 

c. The subject noun, Jane, has 
the nominative case ; because, it is 
the subject of an independent 
clause. 

d. The subject of an indepen- 
dent clause is put in the nomina- 
tive case, to show that its clause is 
not to be taken with another, un- 
less joined, by a connector, or by a 
relative adjunct. 

14. The teacher urged the boys to study their lessons. 
The teacher urged them to study. 



a. Sing (to sing) is unlimited; 
because, it takes neither Person 
nor Number. 

b. Sing has neither person nor 
number; because, its subject noun, 
birds, has. the Objective Case. 

c. The subject noun, birds, has 
the objective case ; because it is the 
subject of a clause dependent in 
form. 

d. The subject noun of a depen- 
dent clause is put in the objective 
Case, to show that its clause is to 
be taken with another, without a 
connector, or a relative adjunct. 



MEAN'S OF KNOWING PERSON AND NUMBER. 249 

Parsing, Study is a regular transitive, word Yerb, ; from the 

Verb, , its principal parts are ; . It has the active voice, 

and is not limited by Person and Number. Study does not have 
Person and Number, because its subject, boys, is in the objective case. 

15. The rules required the people to be building houses. 

Be building is not limited by Person and Number ; because, its sub- 
ject noun, people, is in the objective case. 

16. For them to behave ill is discreditable to them. It is 
discreditable for them to behave ill. 

17. I heard of him being in the city. I heard of his being 
in the city. 

The Yerb, being, is not limited by Person and lumber ; because, 
one of its subjects, personated by him, is in the objective case ; and, 
because its other subject, personated by his, is in the possessive case. 
(See Nouns, Cases of Subjects.) 



The Means of knowing the Person and Number of Verbs. 

32. The Person and Number of a Verb may be 
known in two ways ; — 

First By a reference to its subject noun in the Nominative 
case, which is the only means of knowing the Person and 
Number of an English verb, in the first person singular, or 
in any person of the plural, except the verb, am, in which 
m shows the first person. 

18. I love. We love. Ye or you love. They love. 

In this example, the only means for finding the Number and Person 
of the Yerb, love, is by a reference to its subject. By referring, we 
find ; first, that each subject is in the nominative case, and hence that 
Number and Person must be attributed to its Yerb. Second, by find- 
ing the Person and Number of the subject, we find what Person and 
Number are to be attributed to its Yerb. 

If, by reference, we find the subject in the possessive or in the ob- 
jective case, we know that neither Person nor number is to be attrib- 
uted to the Yerb. 

Second. By a suffix pronoun. In the verb, am, and per- 
haps in a few others, the suffix pronoun, m, shows the first 

11* 



250 GRAMMAR, [CHAP. IV. 

person. (See Suffix Pronouns.) The second person of the 
singular number may be known by one <# the suffixes, est, 
st, or t, attached either to the principal Verb, or one of its 
auxiliaries; while the third person of the singular number 
may generally be known by one of the suffixes, es, or s, eth 
or thy attached either to the principal Verb or one of its 
auxiliaries. 

19. Thou doest well. Thou dost do well. Thou didst well. 
Thou didst love thy neighbor. Thou art here. Thou art 
reading. 

The Yerb, doest, may be known to have the Third Person, and 
Singular Number by observing the modification of the Yerb, do, caused 
by the suffix, est. 

20. He does well. He does do well. He labors. He 
does labor. 

The Yerb, does, may be known to have the Third Person and Singu- 
lar Number by its suffix, es. 

Note I. The terminations, est, and st, in the Second Person Singular, 
and eth in the Third, are used in the Bible, and in solemn address. 
They are also used by the poets, and by the Friends or Quakers. 

Note II. Many of these forms are contracted, sometimes with, and 
sometimes without the apostrophe ; as, — 

Mayest is contracted into may^st, or mayst. 
Mightestf " " might 1 st, or mightst 

Couldestf " " could 1 s^ or couldst 

Note III. Some are permanent contractions ; as, canst, dost, didst, 
hast, hadst, wast, wert, doth, saith, hath, etc. 

Note IY. In familiar discourse, the Friends commonly use the Third 
Person Singular, instead of the Second ; except in the Present and 
Perfect Tenses. 

Modes of the Yerb. 

33. Mode is a logical attribute, which the Verb derives 
from the narrator's mood (feeling, passion, emotion), in regard 
to the thought narrated. 



CLASSIFICATION OF MODES. 251 

Note L The student may perceive that this definition of Mode does 
not include the Potential. For the reason of this omission, see Poten- 
tial Mode. 

34. In the English language, the Verb has six 

Modes ; called, the Infinitive, the Participial, the Indic- 
ative, the Imperative, the Potential, and the Subjunctive ; 
of which the Indicative, the Imperative, and the Po- 
tential are used both in simple and compound sentences ; 
while, the Infinitive, the Participial, and the Subjunc- 
tive are used in compound sentences only. 

Note II. Those who prefer to use the Interrogative Mode can de- 
fine it as a Mode used in ashing questions, striking from the definition 
of the Indicative Mode, that part which describes it as being used in 
asking questions. 

Classification of Modes. 

35. Modes, according to the limitation of the Verb, by 
person [and number], are divided into two kinds; the Un- 
limited or Infinite Modes, and the Limited or Finite Modes. 

36. Unlimited or Infinite Modes are those in which per- 
son [and number] are not attributed to the verb ; or, are those 
verbs which do not take suffix pronouns. They are the In- 
finitive, and the Participial Modes. 

Note I. In all languages, the Indicative, the Imperative, the 
Potential, and the Subjunctive are Limited or Finite, while the In- 
finitive and the Participial are Unlimited or Infinite Modes. 

Note II. The impression that Person and Number are necessary 
to the limitation of a verb is probably erroneous. Originally, a verb 
showing the person of its subject was called a Limited or Finite 
verb ; while, a verb not showing the person of its subject was called 
an Unlimited or Infinite verb. The attribute Number did not affect 
the limitation of a verb. 



252 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV 

Infinitive Mode. 

3 7 • The Infinitive Mode is attributed to a verb not lim* 
ited by person and number, and is used in historic or declarative 
dependent clauses. 

Examples. 

1. He desired the boys to be quiet. He required the man 
to attend to the business. 

Grammatical Analysis. Be is an irreg., intrans., simple Verb ; from 

the Yerb, to be ; its prin. parts are ; . It has the act. voice, no 

person and number, infinitive Mode. It has the infinitive Mode, because 
it has neither person nor number and is used in a historic or declarative 
dependent clause. 

Attend is a Yerb; from the Yerb, ; its prin. parts are; 

. It has the act. voice, unlimited by person and number, wfin* 

itive Mode. It has the infinitive Mode, because, etc. 

2. He wished the students to be studying their lessons. 
He wished the lessons to be studied by the students. 

Parsing. Be studying is a reg., trans., comp. Yerb ; from the Yerb, 

; its prin. parts are; . It has the act. voice, unlimited 

by person and number. It has the logical attribute, infinitive Mode ; 
because, it is without person and number, and is used in a historic or 
declarative sentence. 

Be studied is in the passive voice, unlimited by person and number, 
and in the infinitive Mode ; etc. 

3. The girls ought to take exercise in the open air. Exer- 
cise ought to be taken in the open air by the girls. 

Take is in the infinitive Mode; because, it is unlimited by person 
and number, and is used in a historic or declarative sentence. Take 
is without person and number, because its subject noun, girls, under- 
stood, is in the objective case. The subject noun, girls, is in the ob- 
jective case, because it is the subject of a first object clause, joined to 
another by its form. 

Note I. The student must bear in mind that the person and num- 
ber of a Yerb are rhetorical attributes, given to the Yerb, when its 
subject noun is really in the nominative case ; and, that they are not 
to be given to the Yerb, when its subject noun is not in the nominative 
case ; or, when the subject noun is in the objective, or in the possessive 
case. 

4. I may [tol go to town. You can [to] read very welL 
The work must [to] be done immediately 

5. Jane heard the birds [to] sing. 



MODES OF THE YERB. 253 



Comparative Parsing. 



a. The Verb, heard, is limited 
by person and number ; because, 
its subject noun, Jane, is in the 
nominative case. 

b. Heard is in the Indicative 
Mode ; because, it is limited by 
person and number, and is used in 
a historic or declarative sentence. 



a. The Yerb sing, is not limited 

by person and number; because, 
its subject noun, birds, is in the 
objective case. 

b. Sing is in the infinitive Mode ; 
because, it is not limited by per- 
son and number, and is used in a 
historic or declarative sentence. 



6. The horses were seen to run by the man. They were 
seen to run by the man. 

Parsing. To run is Yerb ; act. voice, not limited by per. and 

num., infinitive Mode. It has the infinitive, because it is used in a his- 
toric clause, and is not limited. It is not limited, because, its subject, 
horses [them], is really in the objective case. Its subject, horses [them], 
is really in the objective; because, it is the subject of a dependent 
clause, connected by its form. Its subject, horses [them], is appa- 
rently in the nominative [horses, they], to show that the whole sentence 
is not joined to another sentence. *■ 

7. To do good is to be happy. 

Parsing. Do is a Yerb ; because, it is a predicate of a vague or 
general subject, to which its relation is shown by the relator, to. It 
is an irregular, transitive, simple verb. Its attributes are active voice, 
infinitive Mode. 

8. He urged the boys to be washed and to be dressed in 
good season. 



Participial Mode. 

3 8 • The Pakticipial Mode is attributed to a verb, which is 
unlimited by person and number, and is used in periphrastic 
forms of compound verbs, and in adjunct and second object 
clauses. 

1. Periphrastic Forms of the Verb. Is he doing the work ? 
He is doing the work. Is the work done by him ? The work 
is done by him. 



254 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

Grammatical Analysis. Doing is an irreg., trans., word Verb ; from 

the Verb, to do ; its prin. parts are ; . It has the attributes, 

active , without person and number, 'participial Mode. It has 

the logical attribute, participial Mode, because it seems to share with 
the Verb, is, in its subject noun, personated by he, which should be 
Mm. 

The original of this seems to have been ; Him doing the work is ; 
hence, He is doing the work is similar to He is said to have come. 
Done has the passive voice, is not limited by person and number, 
participial Mode. It has the logical attribute, participial Mode, be- 
cause it seems to share with the Verb, is, in its subject noun, work. 
The work done by him is. 

2. Adjunct Clause. The boy, being™ diligent, won the prize. 
The boy, on account of his being 24 diligent, won the prize. 

Being has the participial Mode ; because, it is without person and 
number, and is used in an adjunct clause. This clause limits the 
noun, boy, to which it is related by of and has its subject noun in 
the possessive or genitive case. 

3. Adjunct Clause. I had no idea of his reading™ so well. 

The Verb, reading, has the logical attribute, participial Mode ; 
because, it is without person and number, and is used in an adjunct 
clause, its subject being personated by Ms. 

4. We perceived a noble ship, buffeting the waves. We 
perceived a noble ship, which noble ship was buffeting the 
waves. 

5. We had heard of Henry selling™ his farm. 

Parsing. Selling is an irreg., intrans., word Verb ; from the Verb, 

to sell; its prin. parts are; ; active voice, without person and 

number, and in the participial Mode. It has the logical attribute, 
participial Mode, because it is without person and number, and is 
in a second object or limiting clause. 

Note I. The Participial Mode is used in Limiting clauses (See 
Obj. and Relator Adjunct) whose subject nouns are not in the 
nominative case ; hence, the Participial Mode is an unlimited or 
infinite conditional, while the Subjunctive is a limited or finite con- 
ditional mode. (See Subjunctive Mode.) 

Limited or Finite Modes. 

39. The Limited or Finite Modes are those in which the 
verb is limited by person 4 [and number]. 

They are the Indicative, the Imperative, the Potential, and 
the Subjunctive Modes. 



MODES OF THE VERB, 255 



Indicative Mode. 

40. The Indicative Mode is attributed to a verb, which 
has person and number and is used in a historic or declarative, 
in an interrogative, in a responsive, or in an exclamative sen* 
fence. 

Examples. 

1. Historic or Declarative. The evil, that men do, lives 
after them ; the good is oft interred with their bones. 

Grammatical Analysis. Do is an irreg., trans., simp. Verb ; from 

the Verb, to do ; its prin. parts are ; . Its attributes are act. 

voice, third, singular, indicative Mode. It has the logical attribute, 
indicative Mode, because it is limited by person and number, and is 
used in a historic or declarative sentence. 

2. Interrogative. Where is that land where peddlers go ? 

Parsing, is is a Yerb ; from ; its prin. parts are ; . 

It has the attributes, active, third, singular indicative Mode. It has 
the logical attribute, indicative Mode, because it takes person and num- 
ber, and is used in an interrogative sentence. 

Or, those who use an interrogative Mode, would give the attributes 
of the Yerb, is ; active, third, singular, interrogative Mode ; etc. 

3. Responsive. "lis Echo answers, " Really, I do not 
know." 

4. Exclamative. How strange it seems 1 All now is calm 
where late wild terror reigned I 

Note I. The student must observe that we have two historic or 
declarative Modes, the Infinitive, and the Indicative ; and, that the dis- 
tinction between them is this; the Infinitive is an unlimited infinite 
historic or declarative Mode, while the Indicative is a limited or finite 
historic or declarative Mode. 



Imperative Mode, 

41. The Imperative Mode is attributed to a verb used in 
commanding, entreating, permitting, etc. 



256 GRAMMAS. [CHAP. IV. 

Examples. 

1. Commanding. Throw down your arms, and disperse. 

Parsing. Throw is a Yerb ; from ; its prin. parts are ; 

• . It has the imperative Mode; because, it is limited by person 

and number, and is used in a command. 

2. Entreating. Give us this day our daily bread. Grant 
us thy favor. 

3. Permitting. Enter, my lords, and take your rest. 

4. Apologizing. Excuse me, sir. 

5. Exhorting. Awake, and let your songs resound. 

Potential Mode, 



4:3. The Potential Mode is formed by taking a verb in 
the Indicative, with a Verb in the Infinitive, both verbs having, 
logically, the same subject. The Indicative part is one of the 
verbs, may, can, must, could, would, should, used to express 
the duty, liberty, ability, or necessity of the act named or expressed 
by an Infinitive part. 

Note I. From the definition, it is easily perceived that the Potential 
Mode is merely a convenient name for certain conditions, under which, 
a Yerb in the Indicative, and a Yerb in the Infinitive, may be taken 
together. These conditions are; first, the subject of the two Yerbs 
must be the same, logically; while, grammatically, one is in the 
Nominative, and the other is in the Objective case; second, the first 
Yerb must be in the Indicative, the second in the Infinitive Mode; 
third, the first Yerb must express duty, liberty, ability, or necessity in 
regard to the performance of a certain act by the subject, this act itself 
being named by the second Yerb ; fourth, that the relator of the Infini- g 
tive must be understood. "We perceive also, that by parsing one part 
as a Yerb in the Indicative, and the other as a Yerb in the Infinitive, 
the term, Potential, would not be required. The Potential Mode is 
un philosophical ; because, it is based on an arbitrary distinction among 
Yerbs, according to which, the number of Modes might be indefinitely 
increased. The Conjugation of the English Yerb would be greatly 
simplified by rejecting this Mode. 



MODES OF THE VERB. 257 



Examples. 

1. Liberty, May the boy study nis lessons ? The boj 
may study his lessons. The boy may [to] study his lessons. 

Usual Parsing. May study is a reg., trans., comp. Verb ; from thf 

Verb, ; its prin. parts are; . Its attributes are, voice, 

persons, number, potential Mode. It has the potential Mode, 

because It is an Indicative, may, used with an Infinitive, study, both 
Verbs having, logically, the same subject, boy, expressed with the In- 
dicative, and understood with the Infinitive. 

Better Mode of Parsing. May is a defective Verb, never used except 
as an auxiliary ; its prin. parts are wanting. Its attributes are, active, 
third, singular, indicative Mode. It has the indicative Mode, because 
it is used, etc. 

Study is a Verb ; from the Verb, ; its prin. parts are ; . 

It has the attributes, active, no person, no number, infinitive Mode. I* 
has the infinitive Mode, because it is used in a clause dependent in 
form, which is interrogative, or, etc. 

2. Might the boy study his lessons ? 

3. Ability. Can the boy study his lessons ? The boy 
can [to] study his lessons. 

4. Could the boy study his lessons ? The boy could study 
his lessons. 

5. Duty. Should the boy study his lessons? The boy 
should study his lessons. 

6. Necessity. Must the boy study his lessons ? The boy 
must study his lessons. 

7. Willingness. Would the girl read the lesson? The 
girl would read the lesson. 

Note II. The auxiliary Verbs, may, can, must, might, could, would, 
should, are called the Sign of the Potential Mode, That is, the Indica- 
tive part is called the Sign of the Potential Mode. 

Note III. There are many instances of an Indicative followed by an 
Infinitive, both having, logically, the same subject, which grammarians 
do not put in the Potential Mode, simply because the relator, to, is ex- 
pressed ; as, John intends to go to town ; in which intends is parsed as 
a Verb in the Indicative Mode, go, as a Verb in the Infinitive, referring 
to its subject noun, John, understood, to which it is related by to. The 
amplified form of this example is ; John intends John to g;o to town, 
John intends Uimsoif to go to town. 



258 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 



Subjunctive Mode. 

43. The Subjunctive Mode is attributed to a verb used in 
a clause expressing a condition, or a supposition or hypothesis, 
and joined to another clause by a subordinate connector. 

Examples. 

1. Condition. I shall not go to town if it rain to day ; or, 
if it rains to-day. 

Parsing. The Verb, rain, rains, has the attribute, subjunctive 
Mode ; because, it is limited by person and number, and is used in a 
conditional clause which is joined to the affirmer, shall go, of another 
clause ; by the subordinate connector, if. 

2. Supposition or Hypothesis. The surface will be square, 
if its width be equal to its length. 

3. If the fractional parts of a unit he joined, their sum is 
equivalent to the unit. 

Note I. Either the Indicative or the Potential Mode must be 
attributed to the Verb of a subordinate clause, which is joined to its 
principal by a relative adjunct; but, the Subjunctive Mode must be 
attributed to the Verb of a subordinate clause joined to its principal by 
a subordinate connector. 

4. The child sleeps while the mother sings. 

The Verb, sings, has the Indicative Mode ; because, it is the Verb 
of the subordinate clause, while the mother sings, which is joined to its 
principal, the child sleeps, by the relative adjunct, while. 

5. The child sleeps if the mother sing ; or, if the mother 
sings. 

The Verb, sing, sings, has the subjunctive Mode ; because, it is the 
Verb of the subordinate clause, the mother sing or sings, joined to its 
principal clause, the child sleeps, by the subordinate connector, if. 

Note II. The student must observe that, as we have two Modes, 
which are historic or declarative, so we have two Modes, which are 
used in adjunctive, and conditional or limiting clauses; namely, the 






MEANS OF KNOWING MODES. 259 

Subjunctive, and the Participial. The Subjunctive being a limited or a 
finite Mode, used in a clause joined by a subordinate connector to the 
predicate, or to an adjunct word of another clause, thus being an ad- 
junctive clause , while, the Participial Mode is an unlimited or infinite 
Mode, used either in a second object or an adjunct clause. 

6. Nay. they will not be convinced, although one rise from 
( the dead. 

7. Unless he remains quietly, he will be sent from the 
room. 

8. He may leave the room if he can go out quietly. 

9. He need not commence the work unless he can finish it 
to-day. 

Means of Knowing- the Modes of Verbs. 
44. The Modes of Verbs are known in five ways ; — 
First. By a reference to the mood (feeling, passion, 
' emotion), belonging to the thought expressed by the 
sentence. 

Second. By the auxiliary Verbs. 'May, can, must, 
wight, Gould, would, and should, are used as auxiliaries 
in the Potential Mode only, and hence, are signs of the 
Potential Mode. 

Examples. 

1. I may read. I can read. I must read. I might read 
I could read. I would read. I should read. 

2. Thou may est or mayst read. Thou canst read. Thou 
must read. Thou mightest or mightst read. Thou couldest or 
couldst read. Tlfou wouldest or wouldst read. Thou should- 
est or shouldst read. 

Third. By a subordinate connector. A subordinate 
connecter shows that the Verb of its subordinate clause 
is in the Subjunctive Mode. 

Note I. In the English language, when a Verb is in the Subjunc- 
tive, the second and third persons of the singular number are some- 
times used without suffixes. 



260 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

Ndte II. In the English, the Yerb has no form or mode to show the 
Subjunctive Mode, except in its Ancient or Pure Subjunctive Form. 

This Mode is shown by using a limiting connective before a sen- 
tence, whose Verb is in the Indicative, or in the Potential; so that, 
while the four Simple or Real, and also the Compound Mode, are 
shown by the form or construction of the Yerbs themselves, the Sub- 
junctive Mode is shown by the character, or use of the sentence, or even 
by the connective, since this indicates the character, or use of the sen- 
tence; hence, in English, we have Subjunctive Sentences instead of 
Subjunctive Verbs. 

Whenever a Subjunctive is used in those languages, whose Yerbs 
have distinct Subjunctive Forms, the connection of the sentence is al- 
ways shown by a limiting connective, so that nothing is gained by 
having the Subjunctive Form of the Yerb, since the use of the Yerb 
may be known by the connective. In this respect, therefore, the Eng- 
lish is the simpler, because it is less encumbered with useless forms. 

3. If I hear. If thou hear. If he hear. 

4. If I heard. If thou heard. If he heard. 

5. If thou desire it, we will go. If he come, we must stay. 
If thou heard him, why didst thou not answer ? 

Fourth. By the relator, TO. In the English language, 
the relation of a Verb in the Infinitive Mode to its own 
subject is always shown by the relator, to, either ex- 
pressed or understood. (See Chap. III., Relators.) 
Hence, the relator, to, when used to show the relation 
of an affirmer to its own subject, is called " The Sign of 
the Infinitive Mode." 

6. Did you ask me to bring the books to you ? To strive 
is to thrive. For one to strive is for one to thrive. 

Fifth. By a suffix modification. One form of the 
Verb in the Participial Mode is made by suffixing ing 
to the verb-root. 

7. The ship, being [be ing] ready, set saiL 



TENSES. 261 



Tenses. 

• 45. Tense is a logical attribute, which the verb derives 
from the relation between the time of the action or event narrated 
and the time of the narration or now. 

Note L The time of the narration is always supposed to be now or at 
the present time ; while, the time of the event or action narrated may 
be the same as the time of narration, or the time of the aetion may bo 
before the time of the narration, or it may be after the time of the nar- 
ration ; hence, that attribute or property of the Yerb, by which the 
narrator shows the relation between the time of his narration, which 
is now, and the time of the event or action, is very properly called the 
tense or the relation between the times of two events or actions. 

46. The English Verb has six Tenses ; namely, 

the Present, the Indefinite Past or the Imperfect, the 

First Definite Past or the Perfect, the Second Definite 

Past or the Pluperfect, the Indefinite Future or the 

First Future, and the Definite Future or the Second 

Future. 

Note II. Of the two modes of naming Tenses, given above, the 
first is based on the relation between the time of the action or event, 
and the time of its narration ; the second is based on the completeness 
or the incompleteness of the action narrated. 

Note III. Eor convenience, the Indefinite Past or the Imperfect 
Tense sometimes is called the Past Tense ; and, for the same reason, 
the Indefinite Future or the First Future is called the Future Tense. 

Note IV. The number of the Tenses, belonging to a Yerb, will diffef 
according to the different ways of distinguishing the relations between 
the two times, the one of narration, the other of action or event; 
hence, the difference between the number of Tenses belonging to the 
Verbs of different languages. 



262 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

Tense Forms. 

47. The Tenses of a Yerb in the active voice have 
the Simple, the Emphatic, and the Periphrastic Forms ; 
while, in the Passive voice, they have the Periphrastic 
Form only ; hence, these are called Tense Forms. (See 
Chap. III., Predicates.) 

Simple Tense Forms, 

48. The Simple Forms of each Tense are made ac- 
cording to special Rules given under each Tense. 

Emphatic Tense Forms. 

49. The Emphatic Forms of each Tense may be 
made according to special Eules, or according to the 
following General Rule ; — 

Rule I. The Emphatic Form of a Tense must be 
made by using the verb-root or first principal part as the princi- 
pal verb, with the corresponding Mode and Tense of the verb, to 
DO, as its auxiliary. 

Periphrastic Tense Forms. 

50. The Periphrastic Form of a Tense may be 
made according to special Rules, or according to the 
following General Rule ; — 

Rule II. The Periphrastic Form of a Tense must be made by 
using the third principal part in the active voice, and the fourth 
principal part in the passive voice, as the principal verb, with 
the corresponding Mode and tense of the verb, to be, as its 
auxiliary. 

Classification of Tenses. 

51. Classifications. Tenses are classified in 
two ways ; first, according to their limitation ; second, 
according to the time of the narration. 



CLASSIFICATION OF TENSES. 263 

52. First Classification. According to their limir 
tation, Tenses are divided into the Indefinite, and the 
Definite Tenses. 

53. An Indefinite Tense is a tense which is not limited 
by a tense of the auxiliary verb, to ha ye. 

54. The Indefinite Tenses are the Present, the In- 
definite Past or the Imperfect, and the Indefinite Future 
or the First Future. 

55. A Definite Tense is a tense which is limited by a 
tense of the auxiliary verb, to have. 

56. The Definite Tenses are the First Definite Past 
or the Perfect, the Second Definite Pastor the Pluperfect, 
and the Definite Future or the Second Future. 

57. Second Classification of Tenses. According 

to the time of the narration, Tenses are divided into 
three kinds ; called, the Present, the Past, and the 
Future. 

Present Tense. 

58. A Present Tense is one in which the time of the event 
or action narrated occurs at the time of the narration. 

Past Tenses. 

59. A Past Tense is one in which the time of the event 
or action occurred before the time of the narration. 

60. The Past Tenses are the Indefinite Past or the 
Imperfect, the First Definite Past or the Perfect Tense, 
and the Second Definite Past or the Pluperfect Tense. 



264 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 



Future Tenses. 

61. A Fjture Tense is one in which the time of the event 
or action narrated will occur after the time of the narration. 

62. The Future Tenses are the Indefinite Future 
or the First Future, and the Definite, Second, or Perfect 
Future Tense. 

Indefinite Tenses. 

Present Tense. 

63. The Present Tense is attributed to a verb when the 
time of the event or action narrated is the same as the time of the 
narration. 

Examples. 

1. Is he to be our guide? He is to be our guide. [Him 
to be our guide, is.] 

Grammatical Analysis. Is is an irregular, intransitive, simple Verb 
from the verb, to be ; its principal parts are ; to be, he was, being, 

been. Its attributes are ; active , third , singular 

indicative , present Tense ; Simple Interrogative. It is indefinite ; 

because, it is not limited by a tense of the auxiliary verb, to have. It 
has the logical attribute, present Tense, because the time of the action 
or state of existence narrated is the same as the time of the narration. 

Be is a Verb ; from the Verb, to be ; its prin. parts are ; to be, 

he was, being, been. It has the attributes, activo , no person, 

no number, infinite mode, present Tense. It is indefinite ; because, eta 
It has the logical attribute, present Tense, becausg, etc. 

2. The boat, being ready, may now be loaded. 

Parsing. Being is a Verb ; from the Verb, ■ ; its prm. 

parts are; . It has the attributes, active, without person and 

number, participial mode, present Tense. 

3. Rest in peace. Do rest yourselves here. Be seated in 
this chair. Let me assist you, if I can do so. 

64. The Present Tense is used in all the Modes, as 
follows ; — 



PRESENT TENSE. 265 

65. The Present Tense of the Infinitive Mode hag 
the Simple and the Periphrastic Forms. Its Simple 
Form is the verb-root or first principal part of the Verb. 
Its Periphrastic Forms are made by using the third 
principal part in the Active, and the fourth principal 
part in the Passive, as the principal Verb, with the In- 
finitive Present of the Verb, to be, as an auxiliary ; or, 
according to General Kule IL 

Simple Forms. Periphrastic Forms. 

Active Voice. Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

to be. (wanting). (wanting). 

to love. to be loving. to be loved. 

to do. to be doing. to be done. 

4. To be sincere is to feel in earnest. 

Parsing. Be is Verb ; from ; its prin. parts are ; . It 

has the attributes, active, no person, no number, infinitive, present 
Tense; Simple Form. It has the logical attribute, present Tense, 
because, etc. 

Present Tense, Infinitive Mode, of the Verb, to be ; Active Voice, 
Simple Form ; to be (Here I) ; Passive Voice, (wanting). (See Conju- 
gation of the Verb.) 

Feel is, etc. It has the logical attribute, present Tense; because, 
etc. Present Tense, Infinitive Mode, of the Verb, to feel; Active 
Voice, Simple Form ; to feel (Here !) ; Periphrastic Form, to be feel- 
ing; etc. 

5. He ought to do the work. He ought to be doing the 
work The work ought to be done by him. 

66. The Present Tense of the Participial Mode has 
the Simple Form only. It is the third principal part 
of the Verb, and is made by suffixing ing to the verb- 
root 

Simple Forms. Active Voice. 

Being. Loving. Doing. 

6. The ship, being ready, went to sea. Wind, blowing a 
hurricane, is only air in motion. 

Parsing. Being Is . It has the logical attribute, present Tense. 

It is indefinite ; because, etc. ; it is present, because, etc. Present 

12 



266 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

Tense, Participial Mode of the Verb, to be ; Active Voice, Simple Form, 
being (Here !) ; Passive, (wanting). (See Conjugation of the Verb.) 

67. The Present Tense of the Indicative Mode has 
the Simple, the Emphatic, and the Periphrastic Forms. 
Its Simple form is the verb-root, with the person and 
number suffixes. Its Emphatic Form is made by using 
the verb-root as the principal Verb, with the Indicative 
Present of the Verb, to do, as an auxiliary ; or, accord- 
ing to General Eule I. Its Periphrastics are made by 
using the third prin. part in the Active, and the fourth 
prin. part in the Passive, as the principal Verb, with the 
Indicative Present of the Verb, to be, as its auxiliary ; 
or, according to General Eule IL 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be, 

Interrogative. Am I ? Art thou ? Is he ? Are we ? etc 

I am. Thou art He is. We are. etc. 



Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Do. 
Inter. Do I ? Doest, or doth thou t Does, or doth he ? Do we? etc, 
Resp. I do. Thou doest, or doth. He does, or doth. We do. etc. 

Emphatic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Do. 

Inter, Do I do ? Dost thou do ? Does, or doth he do ? Do we do ? eta 
Resp, I do do. Thou dost do. He does or doth do. We do do. etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Do. 

Inter, Am I doing ? Art thou doing ? Is he doing ? Are we doing ? eta 
Resp. I am doing. Thou art doing. He is doing. We are doing, etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to Do. 

Inter. Am I done ? Art thou done ? Is he done ? Are we done ? etc. 
Resp. I am done. Thou art done. He is done. We are done, etc. 

7. He is eating his food. Does he eat his food ? Is his 
food eaten by him ? Eats he his food ? 

Parsing. Is eating is an irreg., trans., comp. Yerb ; from ; its 

prin. parts are ; . It is active, third, singular, indicative, present 



PRESENT TENSE, IMPERATIVE MODE. 26? 

Tense, periphrastic form, responsive. It is indefinite ; because, etc. ; 
it i&present, because, etc. 

Here let the student give the Active and Passive Periphrastic Forms of 
the Verb, to Eat. 

The Present Tense of the Imperative Mofe. 

68. The Present Tense of the Imperative Mode has 
the Simple, the Emphatic, and the Periphrastic Forms ; 
and, also, a Compound Form. Its Simple Form is the 
verb-root. Its Emphatic Forms are made by using the 
verb-root as the principal Verb, with the Verb, to do, 
as an auxiliary ; or, according to General Eule I. Its 
Periphrastic Forms are made by using the third prin. 
part in the Active, and the fourth prin. part in the 
Passive, as the principal Verb, with the Imperative 
Present of the Verb, to be, as its auxiliary ; or, accord- 
ing to Eule II. Its Compound Form is made by using 
the Verb, to do, as an auxiliary with the Periphrastic 
Forms. 

Simple and Emphatic Forms, of the Verb, to Be. 

Be here. Be thou here. Be ye here. 

Do be here. Do thou be here. Do ye be here. 

Simple Forms. Emphatic Forms. 

Be ; be thou ; be ye. Do be ; do thou be ; do ye be. 

Do ; do thou ; do ye. Do do ; do thou do ; do ye do. 

Note I. In order to enable the student to give the Tense of any 
Mode readily, the following contractions may be used ; — 

pr 1 == Verb-Root or First Principal Part. 

pr 2 == Second Principal Part ; — ed, Reg. ; or, , Irreg. 

pr 3 == Third * " ending in ing. 

pr 4 = Fourth " " ; — ed, Reg. ; or, , Irreg* 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

Be pr 3 . Be thou pr 3 . Be ye pr*. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to — . 
Be pr 4 . Be thou pr 4 . Be ye pr 4 . 



268 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

Compound Forms. Active Voice. 
Do be loving. Do thou be loving. . + 

Compound Forms. Passive Voice. 
Do be lpved. Do thou be loved. Do ye be loved. 

8. Wake, my soul ! Stretch out thy wings ; thy better 
portion t^ce. 

Parsing. Wake is a Yerb ; from the Verb, ; its prin. 

are ; . Its attributes are voice, person, number. 

mode, present Tense, simple form. It is indefinite, because, etc. 

It is present, because, etc. 

Present Tense, Imperative Mode of the Verb, to make; Active 
^oice, Simple Form, wake (Here !) ; Emphatic Form, DO wake ; Peri- 
phrastic Form, DO be waking; Passive Yoice, Periphrastic Form, BE 
waked ; Compound Periphrastic, do be waking-, do be waked. 

9. Boys, do not be making such a noise. Come here, do 
come here, girls ! 

The Present Tense of the Potential Mode. 

69. The Present Tense of the Potential Mode has 
the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. Its Simple 
Form is made by using the verb-root as the principal 
Verb, with the Verbs, may, can, must, as auxiliaries. 
Its Periphrastic Form is made by using the third prin. 
part in the Active, and the fourth prin. part in the 
Passive, as the principal verb, with the Potential Present 
of the Verb, to be, as its auxiliary; or, according to 
General Eule II. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to BE. 

( May, can, or must I [to] be ? 
Inter. < Mayest or mayst, canst, or must thou [to] be ? 
( May, can, or must he [to] be ? etc. 

( I may, can, or must [to] be. 
JResp. < Thou mayest or mayst, canst, or must [to] be. 
( He may, can, or must [to] be. etc. 



PRESENT TENSEy SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 269 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb to (any Verb)* 

f May, can, or must I [to] dress ? 
Inter. < Mayest or mayst, canst, or must thou [to] dress ? 
( May, can or must he [to] dress ? etc. 

I may, can, or must [to] dress. 

Thou mayest or mayst, canst, or must [to] dress. 

He may, can, or must fto] dress etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to - • 

( May, can, or must I [to] be dressing ? 
Inter. -] Mayest, canst, or must thou be dressing ? 
( May, can, or must he be dressing ? etc. 

( I may, can, or must [to] be dressing. 
Resp. < Thou mayest, canst, or must be dressing. 
( He may, can or must be dressing, etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to . 

i May, can, or must I be dressed ? 
Inter. < Mayest,. canst, or must thou be dressed ? 

( May, can, or must he be dressed ? etc. 

( I may, can, or must be dressed. 
Eesp. < Thou mayest, canst, or must be dressed. 

( He may, can, or must be dressed, etc. 

10. May we he studying our lessons ? The roses can be 
gathered in the morning. Must I go to town? Canst thou 
sing ? They cannot sing. 

Parsing. May be studying is a "Verb ; from ; its prin. 

parts are; It has the attributes, voice, person, 

number, mode, present Tense, periphrastic form, interrogative. It 

is indefinite ; because, etc. It is present, because, etc. 

Here give the Present Tense of the Potential Mode, in both Forms, of 
the Verb, to Study. 

11. Can we be here long? Must the horse be driven 
slowly ? May the bell be rung early ? 

The Present Tense of the Subjunctive Mode. 
70. The Present Tense of the Subjunctive Mode 
has three kinds of Simple, Emphatic, and Periphrastic 
Forms, first, those belonging to the Ancient ox Pure 



270 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IT. 

Subjunctive Mode ; second, those belonging to the Sub- 
junctive derived from the Indicative Mode; third, those 
belonging to the Subjunctive derived from the Potential 

Mode. 

Note II. It was proposed to form a pure or distinct Subjunctive 
Mode of the English Verb, by dropping the suffixes showing the per- 
son and number of the subject noun ; but, the proposition was not then 
generally accepted. It succeeded, however, sufficiently to justify the 
use of these Forms, at least, in the Present and in the Imperfect Tenses, 
by those who prefer them. They are commonly known as the Ancient 
or Pure Subjunctive Forms. 

These Forms are now in general use. They add distinctness to the 
language and, also, contribute to its euphony. Hence, the student 
should become familiar with their use. 

The Present Tense of the Ancient or Pure Subjunctive Mode. 

fl. The Present Tense of the Ancient or Pure 
Subjunctive Mode has the Simple, the Emphatic, and 
the Periphrastic Forms. Its Simple Form is made by 
using the verb -root as the principal Verb, with the Yerb 
to do, as its auxiliary. Its Periphrastic Form is made 
by using the third prin. part in the Active, and the 
fourth prin. part in the Passive, as the Principal Verb, 
with the Verb, to be, as its auxiliary. 

Ancient or Pure Subjunctive Forms. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be. 

If I be. If thou be. If he, she, or it be. If we be. eta 

Note III. If, as here used, denotes any subordinate connector. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

If I hate. If thou hate. If he, she, or it hate. If we hate. etc. 
Lest I pr 1 . Lest thou pr 1 . Lest he, she, or it pH. Lest we pr 1 . eta 

Emphatio Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to \ 

If I do sing. If thou do sing. If he, she, or it do sing. If we do sing. 



SUBJUNCTTVE FORMS OF TENSJJS. 271 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

If I be washing. If thou be washing. If he be washing, etc; 

Lest I be pr 3 . Lest thou be pr 3 . Lest he be pf 3 . etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to . 

If I be washed. If thou be pr 4 . If he be pr 4 . If she be pr 4 . eta 

12. Withdraw thy foot from thy neighbor's house, lest he 
be weary of thee. Unless it rain soon, the plants will be 
dried up. If he sleep, he shall do well. 

Parsing. Be is a Verb ; from ; its prin. parts are ; . 

It has the attributes, voice, person, number, mode, 

present Tense, simple form of the Ancient or Pure Subjunctive. * 

Give the Present Tense of the Ancient or Pure Subjunctive of the Verb, 
to Be, in full ; also, of the Verbs, to Rain, to Sleep. 

13. If the sun be shining, it will be hot. Unless this book 
be carefully studied, it should not be studied at all. If he 
do not come, he will not keep his promise. 

Subjunctive Forms, derived from the Indicative Mode, 

12. The Subjunctive Forms, derived from the Indic- 
ative Mode, are the same as the Eesponsive Forms of 
the Indicative Present. They are known to be in the 
Subjunctive, by observing that the clauses in which 
they are used are joined to other clauses by subordinate 
connectors. 

Note IY. The Subjunctive Forms, derived from the Indicative, are 
so easily confounded with the Indicative itself, that they are rapidly 
falling into disuse. It is sufficient condemnation, that many of them 
are cacophonous. No Forms of them, except examples, need be given. 

14. "Withdraw thy foot from thy neighbor's house, lest he 
becomes weary of thee. Unless it rains soon, the plants will 
be dried up. If he sleeps, he shall do well. 



Becomes is a Yerb ; from ; its principal partf* 

are ; It has the attributes, voice, person, number, 

mode, present Tense, simple form of a Subjunctive, derived from 

au Indicative Mode. 



272 3 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IY 

15. If 1 am [be] not here when }^ou return, wait for me. 
Send him to me, unless he is [be] studying. You cannot go 
unless you are fully prepared. You must wait until the work 
is done. 

Subjunctive Forms derived from the Potential Mode. 

¥3. The Subjunctive Forms, derived from the Po- 
tential Mode, are the same as the Responsive Forms of J 
the Potential^ Present. They are known to be in the 
Subjunctive, by observing that they are used in clauses 
joined by subordinate connectors. 

1 6. If it can be, it must be. If it can be learned, it must 
be learned. If I may be going, I will be going. If I must 
work, I will work. 

Parsing. May be going is a Yerb ; from ; its prin. parts 

are ; . It has the attributes, voice, person, num- 
ber, mode, present Tense, periphrastic form of a Subjunctive de- 
rived from the Potential Mode. 

Note V. In consequence of basing the classification of Tenses upon 
the completeness of the action narrated, a common error is prevalent, 
and has been much discussed by writers. It is this ; that such con- 
structions as, " The house is built," are past instead of present Tenses. 
The real Present Tense of such expressions as, "The house is butit," 
is deformed by using the word, being, as if it were an auxiliary Verb ; 
as, " The house is being built," which is, logically, an absurdity. These 
expressions have the real Present Tense ; as, the expression, " The 
teacher is loved by the pupil," has the Present Tense. 

These expressions are easily perceived to be in the Present Tense, 
when second objects are expressed with them ; as, past Tense, " This 
house was built by the day;" present Tense, w This house is built by the 
day ;" future Tense, " This house will be built by the day." " The 
letter was written by me." " The letter is written by me." " The 
letter will be written by me." All that is needed in order that these 
expressions should be properly understood is, that they be used in the 
Forms, dictated by the rules given for constructing the different Tense 
Forms of the English Verb ; or, that the English Grammar should 
teach the correct use of the English language by correcting common 
errors, rather than by endorsing them because they have become com* 
mon. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 273 

Nctb VI. The student should now be required to give a certain 
Person and Number of a given Yerb in the Present Tense, through the 
Finite Modes. This exercise is called a Synopsis 1 or separate view of 
that Person and Number. Thus ; — 

Synopsis of the First Person, Singular Number, Present Tense, of 
the Verb, to Eat. 

Indicative, Active, Szmple, . Eat I ? I eat. Emphatic ; . 

Do I eat ? I do eat. Periphrastic, . Am I eating ? I am eating. 

Passive, . Is it eaten by me ? It is eaten by me. 

Potential, Active, Simple, — : — . May, can, or must I eat? I may, 

can, or must eat. Periphrastic, . May, can, or must I be eating ? 

I may, can, or mu3t be eating. Passive*, . May, can, or must it 

be eaten by me ? It may, can, or must b$ eaten by me. 

Pure Subjunctive, Simple. If I eat. Emphatic. If I do eat. 
Periphrastic. If I be eating. Passive. If it be eaten by me. 

Subjunctive from the Indicative, Simple. If I eat; etc. (Like the 
Indicative Responsive.) * 

Subjunctive from the Potential, Simple. If I may, can, or must eat; 
etc. (Like the Potential Responsive.) 

The Indefinite Past or the Imperfect Tense. 

7 4 . The Indefinite Past, the Imperfect, or the Past 
Tense is attributed to a Yerb, when the time of the action or event 
occurred before the time of the narration. 

Note I. The Indefinite Past Tense is sometimes called the Historic 
Tense of the English language ; because, it is generally used in the 
history of past events. 

Note II. In the Latin language, the First Definite Past or the Per- 
fect Tense is the Historic Tense. Thus, Caesar's letter, "Veni, vidi, 
vici," when exactly translated reads thus, " I have come, I have seen, 
I have conquered." 

*75. The Indefinite Past Tense is used in three 
Modes ; namely, the Indicative, the Potential, and the 
Subjunctive ; as follows, — 

7 6, The Indefinite Past Tense of the Indicative 
Mode has the Simple, the Emphatic, and the Periphras- 
tic Forms. Its Simple Form is the second principal 

1 Synopsis, is -=■ icr, ; ops, eye, seen ; syn = con, together. That is, a par- 
ticular part separated from the others and presented at one view. 



274 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

part of the Verb, with the suffixes showing person and 
number. Its Emphatic Forms are made by using the 
verb-root as the principal Verb, with the Verbs, did, 
didst, as auxiliaries. Its Periphrastic Forms are made 
according to General Eule II. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be. 

Inter. Was I ? Wast, or wert thou ? Was he, she, or it ? Were we ? 
Resp. I was. Thou wast, or wert. He, she, or it was. We were. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

Inter. Did I ? Didst thou ? Did he, she, or it ? Did we ? etc. 
Resp. I did. Thou didst. He, she, or it did. We did. eta 

Emphatic Forms. Active Voice ofiihe Verb, to . 

Inter. Did I run ? Didst thou run ? Did he, she, or it run ? etc. 

I did pr 1 . Thou didst pr 1 . He, she, or it did pr\ etc. 



Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

Inter. Was I holding it ? Wast, or wert thou pr 3 it ? Was he pr 3 it ? etc. 
Resp. I was pr 3 it. Thou wast, or wert pr 3 it. He was pr 3 it. etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to . 

Inter. Was it held by me ? Was it pr 4 by thee ? Was it pr 4 by him ? etc. 
Resp. It was pr 4 by me. It was pr 4 by thee. It was pr 4 by him. etc. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The dog was here. Were the pupils going to school ? 
lie was riding on a horse. The boy obeyed him. I wrote a 
letter. I was writing a letter. The letter was written by me. 



Was is a Yerb ; from ; its prin. parts are ; . 

It has the attributes, voice, person, number, mode, 

indefinite past or the imperfect Teuse, simple form, historic. 

It is indefinite ; because, it is not limited by a tense of the auxiliary 
Verb*to have. It is past, because it shows that the time of the action 
or state of existence, expressed by it, occurred before the time of the 
narration. 

Wrote has the indefinite past or the imperfect Tense. 

2. I came, I saw, I conquered. Did I come ? "Was he 
conquered ? The boy was seen when he was leaving school 



INDEFINI T E PAST TENSE. 275 

77. The Indefinite Past Tense of the Potential Mode 
has the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. Its Sim- 
ple Forms are made by using the verb-root as the prin- 
cipal Verb, with the Yerbs, might, could, would, should, 
as auxiliaries. Its Periphrasties are made according to 
General Rule II. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be. 

( Might, could, would, or should I be ? 
Inter, < Mightest, couldest, wouldest, or shouldest thou be ? 

( Might, could, would, or should he be ? 

( I might, could, would, or should be. 
Resp. -j Thou mightest, couldest, wouldest, or shouldest be. 

( He might, could, would, or should be. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

( Might, could, would, or should I be reading? 
Inter. < Mightest, couldest, wouldest, or shouldest thou be reading 

( Might, could, would, or should he be reading ? 

( I might, could, would, or should be reading. 
Resp. -j Thou mightest, couldest, wouldest, or shouldest be reading 

( He might, could, would, or should be reading. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to . 

i Might, could, would, or should I be heard ? 
Inter. < Mightest, couldest, wouldest, or shouldest thou be heard ? 

( Might, could, would, or should he be heard ? 

( I might, could, would, or should be heard. 
Resp. < Thou mightest, couldest, wouldest, or shouldest be heard. 

( He might, could, would, or should be heard. 

3. Might I listen to your story ? Thou couldst not do it. 
I could a tale unfold. 

Parsing. Might listen is a Yerb ; from ; its prin. parts 

are ; . Its attributes are, voice, person, number, 

mode, indefinite past, or the imperfect Tense, simple form, inter- 
rogative. It is indefinite ; because, etc. It is past, because, etc. 

The Indefinite Past Tense of the Yerb, to Listen, is . 

Here let the student give the Simple and the Periphrastic Forms, Po 
Untial Past of the Verb, to Listen. (See Conjugation.) 



276 GBAM1V1AR. [CHAP. IV. 

*J 8 • The Indefinite Past Tense of the Subjunctive Mode 
has three kinds of Simple, Emphatic, and Periphrastic Forms ; 
first, those belonging to the Ancient or Pure Subjunctive; 
second, those belonging to the Subjunctive derived from the 
Indicative Mode; third, those belonging to the Subjunctive 
derived from the Potential Mode. 

79. The Indefinite Past Tense of the Ancient of 
Pure Subjunctive Mode has the Simple, the Emphatic, 
and the Periphrastic Forms. Its Simple Forms are 
made by using the second prin. part, as the principal 
Verb. Its Emphatic Forms are made by using the 
verb-root as the principal verbs, with the Yerb, did, as 
its auxiliary. Its Periphrastics are made by using the 
third prin. part in the Active, and the fourth prin. part 
in the Passive, as the principal Verb, with the Verb, 
were, as an auxiliary. 

Ancient or Pure Subjunctive Forms. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be. 

If I were. If thou wert. If he, she, or it were. If we were, etc. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

If I hated. If thou hated. If he, she, or it hated. If we pr*. etc 
If I wrote. If thou pr 2 . If he, she, or it pr a . If we pr 3 . eta 

Emphatic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to — — . 
If I did write. If thou did write. If he, she, or it did — . If we — . etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

If Iweregoing. If thou were pr 3 . If he, she, or it were - — . If we — . etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Vsrb, to . 

If I were fed. If thou were pr 4 If he, she, or it were — . If we — . etc. 

If thou were hated, thou wouldst be wretched. If she were 

doing this why did she leave it ? 

Parsing. Were hated is a Verb ; from ; its prin. parts 

are j . its attributes are, voice. — person, — n — number, 



INDEFINITE FUTURE TENSE. 277 

mode, indefinite, past, or the imperfect Tense, in the Ancient or 

Pure Subjunctive Mode. 

4. If I were good natured, his presence would be much 
more tolerable. If thou did hate him, thy conduct was 
strange. 

Subjunctive Forms derived from the Indicative Mode. 

80. The Indefinite, Past Tense of the Subjunctive 
Forms., derived from the Indicative Mode, is the same 
as the Eesponsive Forms of the Indicative Indefinite 
Past. They are known to be in the Subjunctive by 
observing that the clauses, in which they are used, are 
joined to other clauses by subordinate connectors. 

5. If he was near, I would tell him. Thou wouldst think 
less of it, if thou didst know more of it. 

Didst know has the indefinite past or the imperfect Tense, of a Sub- 
junctive derived from an Indicative mode. 

Subjunctive Forms derived from the Potential Mode, 

81. The Indefinite Past Tense of the Subjunctive 
Form, derived from the Potential Mode, is the same as 
the Eesponsive Forms of the Potential Indefinite Past 
They are known to be in the Subjunctive by observing 
that they are used in clauses joined by subordinate 
connectors. 

6. I would go, if I could be ready. They could come, if 
they would. If they were helped, they could do well enough. 

N. B. — Here let the student give Synopsis of the Indefinite 
Past Tense. 

The Indefinite Future or the First Future Tense. 

82. The Indefinite Future, the First Future, or the 
Future Tense is attributed to a verb, when the time of the action 
narrated will occur after the time of the narration. 



278 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

83. The Indefinite Future or the First Future 
Tense is used in two Modes ; namely, the Indicative, 
and the Subjunctive, derived from the Indicative ; as 
follows ; — 

84. The Indefinite Future Tense of the Indicative 
Mode has the Simple and the Periphrastic Forms. Its 
Simple Form is made by using the verb-root as the 
principal Verb, with shall or will as auxiliaries. Its 
Periphrastics are made according to General Eule IL 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be. 

( Shall, or will I be ? 
Inter, < Shalt, or wilt thou be ? 

( Shall, or will, he, she, or it be ? etc. 

( I shall, or will be. 
Resp. -j Thou shalt, or wilt be. 

( He, she, or it shall or will be. etc. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

f Shall, or will I sing ? 
Inter. 4 Shalt, or wilt thou pr 1 ? 

( Shall, or will he, she, or it pr 1 ? etc. 
I shall or will pr 1 . 
Resp. 1 Thou shalt, or wilt, pr 1 . 

, He, she, or it shall, or will pr 1 . etc. 



I: 

tph 



Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to - 

' Shall, or will I be eating ? 
Inter. 4 Shalt, or wilt thou be pr 3 ? 

. Shall, or will he, she, or it be pr 3 ? eta 

r I shall, or will be ing. 

Resp. 4 Thou shalt, or will be pr 3 . 

( He, she, or it shall, or will be pr 3 . etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to • 

' Shall, or will I be known ? 
Inter. < Shalt, or wilt thou be pr 4 ? 

, Shall, or will he, she, or it be pr 4 ? eta 

' I shall, or will be known. 
Resp. 4 Thou shalt or will bo pr 4 . 

. He, she, or it shall, or will be nr 4 . etc. 






DEFINITE TENSES. 279 

Examples. 

1. I will he here when you come. I shall go to the city to- 
morrow. 

85. The Indefinite Future Tense of the Subjunctive, 
derived from the Indicative Mode, is the same as the 
Responsive Forms of the Indicative First Future. They 
are known to be in the Subjunctive by observing that 
the clauses, in which they are used, are joined to other 
clauses by subordinate connectors. 

2. If my sheep shall hear my voice, they will follow me. 
I shall be pleased if you will he here to-morrow. 

N. B. — Now let the student give Synopses of the Indefinite 
Future Tense, 

The Definite Tenses. 

The First Definite Past or the Perfect Tense. 

86. The First Definite Past or the Perfect Tense is 
attributed to a verh, when the past tense of its principal verh is 
limited hy a present tense of the auxiliary verh, to Hate. 

8 7 . The First Definite Past Tense is used in five 
Modes ; namely, the Infinitive, the Participial, the In- 
dicative, the Potential, and the Subjunctive. 

88. The First Definite Past of the Infinitive Mode 
has the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. Its Sim- 
ple Form is made by using the fourth prin. part as the 
principal Verb, with the Verb, to have, as an auxiliary. 
Its Periphrastic Form is made according to General 
Rule IL 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be, to Love, to Do, 
• to have been. to have loved. — — to have done. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

— to have been loving. to have bceTi doing. 



280 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to . 

— to have been loved. to have been done. 

Examples. 

1. I ought to hare been there. He ought to have sold the 
farm. They ought to have studied their lessons. The lessons 
ought to have been studied by them. 

Parsing. Rave been studied is a Yerb ; from ; its prin. 

parts are ; . It has the attributes, voice, person, 

number, mode, the first definite past or the perfect Tense. It is 

definite ; because, the Past Tense of the principal verb, studied, is 
limited by the Present Tense of the auxiliary, have. It is past, 
because, etc. 

89. The First Definite Past Tense of the Participial 
Mode has the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. Its 
Simple Form is made by using the fourth prin. part as 
a principal Yerb, with having as its auxiliary. Its 
Periphrastic Form is made according to General Enle II. 

Note I. The First Definite Past Tense of the Participial Modo is 
sometimes called the Compound Perfect Participle. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verbs, to Be, to Hate, to Do. 

— ■■ having been. having hated. having done. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

having been loving. having been hating. having been — . 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to . 

having been loved. having been hated. having been — . 

2. The boy, having returned from sea, came home. The 
"book, having been brought home, was read by the children. 

90. The First Definite Past Tense of the Indicative 
Mode has the Simple and the Periphrastic Forms. Its 
Simple Form is made by rising the fourth prin. part as 
the principal Verb, with have, hast, has, hath, as auxil- 
iaries. Its periphrastic Form is made according to 
General Eule IL 



FIRST DEFINITE PAST TE^SE. 281 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be. 
Inter, Have I been ? Hast thou been ? Has, or hath he, she, it been t 
Resp. I have been. Thou hast been. He, she, or it has or hath been. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to — . 
Inter. Have I been reading ? Hast thou been pr 3 ? Has or hath he, etc. 
Resp. I have been reading. Thou hast been pr 3 . He, she, or it, etc 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to — . 
Inter. Have I been fed ? Hast thou been pr 4 ? Has or hath he, etc. 
Resp. I have been fed. Thou hast been pr 4 . He, she, or it, etc. 

3. I have teen here some time. Thou hast been reading 
the book. The book has been read by thee. 

Note II. The grammarians define this Tense as follows; "The Per- 
fect Tense denotes that the action is finished, and, also, convey** an 
allusion to the present time." 

91. The First Definite Past Tense of the Potential 
^fode has the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. Its 
simple Form is made by using the fourth prin. part as 
the principal Verb, with, may have, can have, must have, 
as auxiliaries. Its Periphrastic Forms are made ac- 
cording to General Eule II. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be. 

( May, can, or must I have been ? 
Inter. < Mayst, canst, or must thou have been ? 

( Mayst, canst, or must he, she, or it have been ? etc. 

( I may, can, or must have been. 
Resp. < Thou mayst, canst, or must have been. 

( He, she, or it mayst, canst, or must have been. etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to — . 

( May, can, or must I have been driving ? 
Inter. < Mayst, canst, or must thou have been pr 8 ? 

( Mayst, canst, or must he, she, or it have been pr» ? efcfc 

/ I may, can, or must have been driving ; or, — . 
Resp < Thou mayst, canst, or must have been pr 3 . 

( He, she, or it mayst, canst, or must — pr 3 . eta 



282 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to — >%' 

( May, can, or must I have been driven ? 
Inter. < Mayst, canst, or must thou have been driven ? 

( Mayst, canst, or must he, she or it have been — ? etc. 

( I may, can, or must have been driven ; or — . 
Besp. < Thou mayst, canst, or must have been driven. 

( He, she, or it may, can, or must have been driven, etc. 

4. I may have been there. He must have sold his farm. 

92. The First Definite Past Tense of the Subjunctive 
Mode, derived from the Indicative and Potential Modes, 
is the same as the Responsive Forms of the Indicative 
and of the Potential of the First Definite Past Tensa 
They are known by being used in clauses joined by 
subordinate connectors. 

5. If he has bought this house, he has done well. They 
will not venture to come, unless they have already started. 

N. B. — Now let the student give Synopses of the First Def- 
inite Future or the Perfect Tense. 



The Second Definite Past or the Pluperfect Tense. 

93. The Second Definite Past or the Pluperfect 
Tense is attributed to a verb, when the past tense of its principal 
verb is limited by a past tense of the auxiliary verb, to Have. 

94. The Second Definite Past Tense is used in 
three Modes ; namely, the Indicative, the Potential, and 
the Subj unctive ; as follows ; — 

95. The Second Definite Past Tense of the Indic- 
ative Mode has the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. 
Its Simple Form is made by using the fourth prin. 
part as the principal Verb, with had, hadst, as auxiliaries, 
Its Periphrastic Form is made according to General 
Rule IL 



SECOND DEFINITE PAST TENSE. 283 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb to Be. 
Inter. Had I been ? Hadst thou been ? Had he. she, or it been \ etc. 
Resp. I had been. Thou hadst been. He, she, or it had been. etc. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to — . 
Inter. Had I loved ? Hadst thou loved ? Had he, she, or it loved ? etc, 
Resp. I had loved. Thou hadst loved. He, she, or it had loved, eta 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to — . 

Inter. Had I been loving ? Hadst thou been pr 3 ? Had he, she, or it — ? 
Reap. I had been loving. Thou hadst been pr 3 . He, she, or it had — . 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to — . 

Inter. Had I been loved ? Hadst thou been pr 4 ? Had he, she, or it — ? 
Resp. I had been loved. Thou hadst been pr 4 . . He, she, or it had — • 

Examples. 

1. They had been there some time before you went. 

Had been has the second definite past or the pluperfect Tense. It ia 
definite; because it is limited by a Tense of the auxiliary Yerb, to have. 
It is past, because, etc. 

96. The Second Definite Past Tense of the Potential 
Mode has the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. Its 
Simple Form is made by using the fourth prin. part as 
the principal Verb, with might have, could have, would 
have, should have, as auxiliaries. Its Periphrastic Form 
is made according to General Eule II. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be, 
( Might, could, would, or should I have been ? 
Inter. < Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst thou have been ? 
( Might, could, would, or should he, she, or it — ? etc. 
[ 1 might, could, would, pr should have been. 

wouldst, or shouldst have been, 
could, would, or should have been, etc* 



l I might, could, would, ( 
Resp. < Thou mightst, couldst, 
( He, she, or it might, co 



Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to — . 
( Might, could, would, or should I have been reading? 
Inter < Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst thou have been reading ? 
( Might, could, would, or should he have been reading ? etc 



Resp. \ 



284 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

[ I might, could, would, or should have oeen reading. 
Besp. 1 Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been reading; 
( He might, could, would, or should have been reading. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to — . 
j . j Might, could, would, or should I have been known ? 

( Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or thou have been known ? etc, 

I might, could, would or should have been — ed ; or, — . 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or have been known, etc. 

97. The Second Definite Past of the Subjunctive 
Mode is the same as the Eesponsive Forms of the 
Second Definite Past Tense of the Indicative Mode, 
and also of the Potential. They are known by being 
used in a clause joined to another clause by a sub- 
ordinate connector. 

2. If he had not proceeded so far, we should have overtaken 
him. 

N. B. — Now let the student give Synopses of the Second 
Definite Past or the Pluperfect Tense. 

The Definite Future, or the Second Future, or the 

Future Tense. 

98« The Definite Future, or the Second Future, or 
the Future Tense is attributed to a verb, when the time of the 
'principal verb will occur after the time of the narration, and is 
limited by a future tense of the auxiliary verb, to Have. 

Note I. This Tense is often called the " Future Perfect 11 

99. The Definite Future Tense is used in two 
Modes; namely, the Indicative, and the Subjunctive, 
derived from the Indicative ; as follows, — 

100. The Definite Future Tense of the Indicative 
Mode has the Simple, and the Periphrastic Forms. Its 
Simple Form is made by using the fourth prin. part as 
the principal Verb, with shall have, will have, as auxili- 



DEFINITE FUTURE TENSE. 285 

aries. Its Periphrastic Form is made according to 
General Eule II. 

Simple Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to Be. 

/ Shall, or will I have been ? 
Inter. < Shalt, or wilt thou have been ? 

( Shall, or will he have been ? etc. 

i I shall, or will have been. 
Eesp. -J Thou shait, or wilt have been. 

( He shall, or wilt have been. etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Active Voice of the Verb, to . 

f Shall, or will I have been ing ? 

Inter. < Shalt, or wilt thou have been ing ? 

( Shall, or will he have been ing ? eta 

i I shall, or will have been pr 3 . 
Eesp. < Thou shalt, or wilt have been pr 3 . 

( He shall, or will have been pr 3 . etc. 

Periphrastic Forms. Passive Voice of the Verb, to . 

j . j Shall, or will I have been hated ? 

( Shalt, or wilt thou have been pr 4 ? etc. 

j I shall, or will have been pr 4 . 

\ Thou shalt, or wilt have been pr 4 . etc. 

Examples. 

1. He will have been there five days already. After they 
shall have been conquered, peace will be restored. 

101. The Definite Future Tense of the Subjunctive, 
derived from the Indicative, is the same as the Kespon- 
sive Forms of the Definite Future Tense of the Indica- 
tive Mode; from which it is distinguished by being 
used in a clause joined to another clause by a subordi- 
nate connector. 

2. Unless the students shall have studied diligently, they 
will not be able to recite their lessons. 

N. B. — Now let the student give Synopses of the Definite 
Future or the Second Future Tense. 



286 GRAMMAR. [CHA£. IV. 

Means of knowing the Tenses of Verbs. 

102. The Tenses of Yerbs may be known in six 

ways ;— 

First The Present Tense is shown by rising either 
the verb-root alone ; or, by using the third prin. part 
alone ; by one of the auxiliaries, do, chest, dost, does, 
doeth, doth, may, can, must, am, is, art, are. (See 
Present Tense.) 

Second. The Indefinite Past Tense is shown by using 
the second prin. part alone ; and, also, by using one of 
the auxiliaries, did, didst, might, could, would, should, 
was, wast, wert, were. 

Third. The Indefinite Future is shown by using the 
auxiliaries, shall, wilt 

Fourth. The First Definite Past Tense is shown by 
using the auxiliaries, have, hast, hath, may have, can 
have, must have. 

Fifth. The Second Definite Past Tense is shown by 
using the auxiliaries, had, hadst, might have, could have, 
would have, should have. 

Sixth. The Definite Future Tense is shown by using 
the auxiliaries, shall have, will have: 

Conjugation of the Verb. 

103. Fourth, the Conjugation of the Verb. 



104:. The Conjugation of a Verb is an arrangement show- 
ing the classes to which a verb belongs, and also, its different 
attributes or properties. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 287 

Note I. The results, produced by the conjugation of the Verb, are 
called the Paradigm* of the Yerb. 

105. A Verb may be Conjugated in two ways; 
first, according to its tense or Tense-wise; and second, 
according to its mode or Mode-wise. 

106. A Verb is conjugated according to its Tense or 
Tense-wise, when each tense is given through all its modes. 

Thus, the Yerb, to Write, is Conjugated tense-wise ; first, by giving 
its Present Tense through the Infinitive, the Indicative, the Imperative, 
the Potential, and the Subjunctive Modes; second, by giving its Indefi- 
nite Past Tense, etc., through the Indicative, etc. 

107 • A Verb is Conjugated according to its Mode or Mode- 
wise, when each mode is given through all the tenses, in which 
that mode is used. 

Thus, the Yerb, to Write, is Conjugated mode-wise, when ; first, its 
Infinitive is given through its Present, and Definite Past Tenses ; second, 
when its Participial is given through its Present, and its Definite Past 
Tenses; third, when its Indicative is given through its Present, Past, 
and Future Tenses, etc. 

Note II. In the following Paradigm, the Conjugation of the Irregu- 
lar Yerb, to Be, is given with the Conjugation of the Regular Yerb, to 
Love. To these should be added the Conjugation of an Irregular Yerb. 
For this purpose, the Yerb, to Write, is well suited, on account of 
the difference between its second principal part, wrote, and its fourth 
principal part, written. Students, reviewing this Conjugation, will be 
profited by substituting an Irregular Yerb for the Yerb, to Love. 

Note III. In the following Conjugation, the word, direct, is used in 
place of the term, Responsive. The term, Direct, being applied to a 
Responsive, and a Declarative or Historic sentence. At the option of 
the teacher, the term, Responsive, may be substituted for the term, 
Direct, when the Interrogative is given. 



288 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

Conjugation of the Irregular Verb, to Be, and the Regular Verb, 
to Love, according to their Modes or Mode-wise, 

paradigms. 
Infinitive Mode. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms. 
■■ to be. - — to love. to write. 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 
to (wanting). to be loving. to be writing. 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 
to (wanting). to be loved. to be written. 

FIRST DEFINITE PAST OR THE PERFECT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms. 
— to have been. to have loved. to have written, 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 
— - to (wanting). — to have been loving. — to have been writing. 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 
— to (wanting). — to have been loved. — to have been written* 

Participial Mode; or, the Participle. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 

— being. — loving. — writing. 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms. Seldom used. 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 

— (wanting). — being loved. — being written. 

Definite Past or the Perfect Tense ; or, the Compound 
Perfect Participle. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms. 
— having been, — having loved. — having written. 



INDICATIVE MODE PRESENT TENSE. 289 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 

— (wanting). — having been loving. — having been writing, 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 

— (wanting). — having been — having been written ; or, 

loved; or, — loved. — written. 

Note I. The Periphrastic Forms of the Passive Voice, Definite Past 
Tense, Participial Mode, are frequently used without the auxiliaries, 
having, been ; hence, these contracted Forms (— loved, — written, etc.) 
always have the Passive Voice. 

Indicative Mode. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
*am, Thou art, He is. We are, Ye, or you are, They are. 
Km I ? Art thou ? Is he ? Are we ? Are ye, or you ? Are tkey? 
Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
Sin. Hove, Thou lovest, He loves. 

Plu. We love, Ye, or You love, They love. 

Sin. Love I ? Lovest thou ? Loves he ? 

Plu. Love we ? Love ye, or you * Love they ? 

Active Voice, Emphatic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
Sin. I do love, Thoe dost love, He does love. 

Plu. We do love, Ye, or you do love, They do love. 

Sin. Do I love 1 Dost thou love ? Does he love ? 

Plu. Do we love ? Do ye, or you love ? Do they love ? 

Aotive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative 
Sin. I am loving, Thou art loving, He is loving. 

Plu. We are loving, Ye, or you are loving, They are loving. 
Sin. Am I loving ? Art thou loving ? Is he loving ? 

Plu. Are we loving ? Are ye, or you loving ? Are they loving ? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
Sin. I am loved, Thou art loved, He is loved. 

Plu. We are loved, Ye, or you are loved, They are loved. 
Sin. Am I loved 1 Art thou loved ? Is he loved ? 

Plu. Are we loved ? Are ye, or you iuved i Are they loved? 
13 



290 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. TV, 

THE INDEFINITE PAST OR THE IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

Sin. I was, Thou wast, He was. 

Plu. We were, Ye, or you were, They were. 

Sin. Was I ? Wast thou ? Was he ? 

Plu. Were we ? Were ye, or you ? Were they ? 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 
Sin. I loved, Thou lovedst, He loved. 

Plu. We loved, Ye, or you loved, They loved. 

Sin. Loved I ? Lovedst thou ? Loved he ? 

Plu. Loved we ? Loved ye, or you ? Loved they ? 

Active Voice, Emphatic Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 
Sin. I did love, Thou didst love, He did love. 

Plu. We did love, Ye, or you did love, They did love. 
Sin. Did I love? Didst thou love ? Did he love? 

Plu. Did we love ? Did ye, or you love ? Did they love ? 

» 
Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
Sin. I was Roving, Thou wast loving, He was loving. 

Plu. We were loving, Ye, or you were loving, They were loving. 
Sin. Was I loving ? Wast thou loving ? Was he loving ? 

Plu. Were we loving ? Were ye, or you loving ? Were they loving f 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
Sin. I was loved, Thou wast loved, He was loved. 

Plu. We were loved, Ye, or you were loved, They were loved. 
Sin. Was I loved? Wast thou loved? Was he loved? 

Plu. Were we loved ? Were ye, or you loved ? Were they loved ? 

THE FIRST DEFINITE PAST OR THE PERFECT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 

Sin. I have been, Thou hast been, He has been. 

Plu. We have been, Ye, or you have been, They have been 

Sin. Have I been ? Hast thou been ? Has he been ? 

Plu. Have we been ? Have ye, or you been ? Have they been ? 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
Sin. I have loved, Thou hast loved, He has loved. 

Plu. We have loved, Ye, or you have loved, They have loved. 
Sin. Have I loved ? Hast thou loved ? Has he loved ? 

Plu. Have we loved ? Have ye, or you loved ? Have they loved f 



INDICATIVE MODE FIKST FUTURE TENSE. 291 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative* 
I have been loving, Thou hast been loving, He has been loving. 
We have been — Ye, or you have been — They have been loving. 
Have I been loving? Hast thou been loving ? Has ae been loving ? 
Have we been — Have ye, or you been — Have they been loving 1 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I have been loved, Thou hast been loved, He has been loved. 
' We have been loved, Ye, or you have been — They have been loved 
Have I been loved 1 Hast thou been loved ? Has he been loved ? 
Have we been — Have ye, or you been — Have they been loved 1 

THE SECOND DEFINITE PAST OR THE PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I had been, Thou hadst been, He had been. 

We had been, Ye, or you had been, They had been. 

Had I been ? Hadst thou been 1 Had he been ? 

Had we been ? Had ye, or you been ? Had they been ? 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I had loved, . Thou hadst loved, He had loved. 

We had loved, Ye, or you had loved, They had loved. 

Had I loved ? Hadst thou loved ? Had he loved ? 

Had we loved ? Had ye, or you loved ? Had they loved ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I had been loving, Thou hadst been loving, He had been loving. 

We had been loving, Ye, or you had been — They had been loving. 
Had I been loving ? Hadst thou been loving? Had he been loving ? 
Had we been loving ? Had ye, or you been — Had they been loving? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I had been loved, Thou hadst bee" loved, He had been loved. 

We had been loved, Ye, or you had been — They had been loved. 

Had I been loved ? Hadst thou been loved 1 Had he been loved ? 

Had we been loved ? Had ye, or you been — Had they been loved ? 

THE INDEFINITE FUTURE OR FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I shall, or will be, Thou shalt, or wilt be, He shall, or will be. 

We shall, or will be, Ye, or you shall — be, They shall, or will be. 

Shall, or will I be ? Shalt, or wilt thou be ? Shall, or will he be ? 

Shall, or will we be 1 Shall — ye^ or you be? Shall, or will they be ! 



292 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. XYV 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I shall, or will love, Thou shalt love, He shall love. 

We shall, or will love, Ye, or you shall love, They shall love. 
Shall, or will I love ? Shalt thou love ? Shall he love ? . 

Shall, or will we love ? Shall ye, or you love ? Shall they love ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative, 
I shall be loving, Thou shalt be loving, He shall be loving. 

"We shall be loving, Ye, or you shall be — They shall be loving, 
Shall I be loving ? Shalt thou be loving ? Shall he be loving ? 

Shall we be loving? Shall ye, or you be — Shall they be loving? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I shall be loved, Thou shalt be loved, He shall be loved. 

We shall be loved, Ye, or you shall be — They shall be loved. 
Shall I be loved? Shalt thou be loved ? Shall he be loved? 

Shall we be loved ? Shall ye, or you be — Shall they be loved ? 

THE DEFINITE FUTURE OE THE SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct, and Interrogative. 

I shall have been, Thou shalt have been, He shall have been. 

We shall have been, Ye, or you shall have — They shall have been. 

Shall I have been ? Shalt thou have been ? Shall he have been ? 

Shall we have been ? Shall ye, or you have — Shall they have been 1 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I shall have loved, Thou shalt have loved, He shall have loved. 

We shall have loved, Ye, or you shall have — They shall have loved, 

Shall I have loved ? Shalt thou have loved ? Shall he have loved ? 

Shall we have loved ? Shall ye, or you have — Shall they have loved f 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I shall, or will have been loving, Shall, or will I have been loving ? 

Thou shalt — have been loving, Shalt — thou have been loving ? 

He shall, or will have been loving, Shall, or will he have been loving? 

We shall, or will have been loving, Shall, or will we have been loving ? 

Ye, or you shall — have been — Shall — ye, or you have been — 

They shall — have been loving. Shall, or will they have been loving 1 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Foims, Direct and Interrogative. 

I shall, or will have been loved, Shall, or will I have been loved? 

Thou shalt — have been loved, Shalt, or wilt thou have been loved ? 

He shall, or will have been loved, Shall, or will he have been loved ? 

We shall, or will have been loved, Shall, or will we have been loved ? 

Ye, or you shall — have been — Shall — ye, or you have been loved ? 

They shall, or will have be.cn loved Sluill or wiJ -^ - Have I loved 



POTENTIAL MODE — PRESENT TENSE. 293 

Imperative Mode. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Simple Form. Be thou, or be you, Be ye, or be you. Contracted, Be. 
Emphatic. Do thou, or do you be, Do ye, or do you be. Con., Do be. 
Simple Form. Love thou, or you, Love ye, or you. 

\ Emphatic. Do thou, or you love, Do ye, or you love. 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forma, 

First Form. Be thou, or you loving, Be ye, or you loving. * 

Second Form. Do thou, or you be loving, Do ye, or you be loving. 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, First and Second. 
Be thou, or you loved, Be ye, or you loved. Contracted, Be loved. 
Do thou, or you be loved. Do ye, or you be loved. Con. t Do be loved* 

Potential Mode. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I may, can, or must be, May, can, or must I be ? 

Thou mayst, canst, or must be, Mayst, canst, or must thou be ? 

He may, can, or must be. May, can, or must he be ? 

We may, can, or must be, May, can, or must we be? 

Ye, or you may, can, or must be, May, can, or must ye, or you be f 

They may, can, or must be. May, can, or must they be ? 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I may, can, or must love, May, can, or must I love ? 

Thou mayst, canst, or must love, Mayst, canst, or must thou love ? 
He may, can, or must love. May, can, or must he love ? 

We may, can, or must love, May, can, or must we love ? 

Ye, or you may, can, or must love, May, can, or must ye, or you love? 
They may, can, or must love. May, can, or must they love ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 
I may, can, or must be loving, May, can, or must I be loving ? 
Thou mayst, canst, or must be — Mayst, canst, or must thou be — 
He may, can, or must be loving. May, can, or must he be loving ? 
We may, can, or must be loving, May, can, or must we be loving ? 
You may, can, or must be loving, May, can, or must you be loving ? 
They may, can, or must be loving. May, can, or must they be loving ? 

1 For Compound Form, see Present Tense of the Imperative Mode. 



294 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I may, can, or must be loved, May, can, or must I be loved ? 

Thou mayst, canst, or must be — Mayst, canst, or must thou be — 

He may, can, or must be loved. May, can, or must he be loved ? 

We may, can, or must be loved, May, can, or must we be loved ? 

You may, can, or must be loved, May, can, or must you be loved ? 

They may, can, or must be loved. May, can, or must they be loved ? 

THE INDEFINITE PAST OR THE IMPERFECT TENSE. ' 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, would, or should be, Might, could, would, or should I be? 
Thou mightst, couldst, &c, be, Mightst, couldst, &c, thou be? 
He might, could, would, &c, be. Might, could, would, &c., he be ? 
We might, could, would, &c, be, Might, could, would, &c, we be ? 
You might, could, would, &c, be, Might, could, would, &c, you be ? 
They might, could, would, &c, be. Might, could, would, &c., they be? 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, would, &c, love, Might, could, would, &c, I love ? 
Thou mightst, couldst, &c, love, Mightst, couldst, &c, thou love ? 
He might, could, would, &c., love. Might, could, would, &c, he love? 
We might, could, would, &c, love, Might, could, would, &c, we love? 
You might, could, would, &c, love, Might, could, would, &c, you love? 
They might, could, &c, love. Might, could, would, &c, they love ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, &c, be loving, Might, could, &c, I be loving? 

Thou mightst, &c, be loving, Mightst, &c, thou be loving ? 

He might, could, &c, be loving. Might, could, &c, he be loving? 

We might, could, &c, be loving, Might, could, &c, we be loving ? 

You might, could, &c, be loving, Might, could, &c, you be loving? 

They might, could, &c, be loving. Might, could, &c, they be loving ? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, &c, be loved, Might, could, &c, I be loved? 

Thou mightst, &c, be loved, Mightst, &c, thou be loved? 

He might, could, &c, be loved. Might, could, &c., he be loved? 

We might, could, &c, be loved, Might, could, &c, we be loved? 

You might, could, &c, be loved, Might, could, &c, you be loved? 

They might, could, &c, be loved. Might, could, &c, they be loved? 

1. He would not come, because he could not afford the 
expense. 



POTENTIAL MODE SECOND DEFINITE PAST TENSE. 295 

THE FIRST DEFINITE PAST OR THE PERFECT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I may, can, or must have been, May, can, or must I have been ? 
Thou mayst, canst, or must have — Mayst, canst, or must thou have -* 
He may, can, or must have been. May, can, or must he have been? 
We may, can, or must have been, May, can, or must we have been ? 
You may, can, or must have been, May, can, or must you have been? 
They may, can, or must have been. May, can, or must they have been 1 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I may, can, or must have loved, May, can, or must I have loved ? 
Thou mayst, eanst, or must have — Mayst, canst, or must thou have — 
He may, can, or must have loved. May, can, or must he have loved ? 
We may, can, or must have loved, May, can, or must we have loved. ? 
You may, can, or must have loved, May, can, or must you have loved ? 
They may, can, or must have loved. May, can, or must they have loved ? 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I may, can, &c, have been loving, May, can, &c, I have been loving? 

Thou mayst, &c, have been loving, Mayst, &c, thou have been loving ? 

He may, &c, have been loving. May, &c., he have been loving ? 

We may, &c, have been loving, May, &c, we have been loving? 

You may, &c, have been loving, May, &c, you have been loving ? 

They may, &c, have been loving. May, &c, they have been loving? 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I may, can, &c, have been loved, May, can, &c, I have been loved ? 
Thou mayst, &c, have been loved, Mayst, &c, thou have been loved? 
He may, &c, have been loved. May, -&c, he have been loved ? 
We may, &c., have been loved, May, &c, we have been loved ? 
You may, &c, have been loved, May, &c, you have been loved ? 
They may, &c, have been loved. May, &c, they have been loved? 

THE SECOND DEFINITE PAST OR THE PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms* Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, &c, have been, Might, could, &c, I have been ? 
Thou mightst, &c, have been, Mightst, &c, thou have been ? 

He might, could, &c, have been. Might, could, &c, he have been ? 
We might, could, &c, have been, Might, could, &c, we have been ? 
You might, could, &c, have been, Might, could, &c, you have been? 
They might, could, &c. have been. Might, could, &c, they have been! 



296 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV, 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, could, &c, have loved, Might, could, &c, I have loved ? 
Thou mightst, &c, have loved, Mightst, &c, thou have loved 1 
He might, could, &c, have loved. Might, could, &c, he have loved ? 
We might, could, &c, have loved, Might, could, &c, we have loved ? 
You might, could, &c, have loved, Might, could, &c, you have loved ? 
They might, could, &c, have loved. Might, could, &c, they have loved! 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, &c, have been loving, Might, &c, I have been loving? 
Thou mightst — have been loving, Mightst — thou have been loving ? 
He might, &c, have been loving. Might, &c, he have been loving? 
We might, &c, have been loving, Might, &c, we have been loving? 
5Tou might, &c, have been loving, Might, &c, you have been loving? 
They might, &c, have been loving. Might, &c, they have been loving! 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Direct and Interrogative. 

I might, &c, have been loved, Might, &c, I have been loved? 

Thou mightst — have been loved, Mightst, &c, thou have been loved 1 
He might, &c., have been loved. Might, &c, he have been loved? 
We might, &c, have been loved, Might, &c, we have been loved ? 
You might, &c, have been loved, Might, &c, you have been loved? 
They might, &c, have been loved. Might, &c, they have been loved? 



Subjunctive Mode. 

PRESENT TENSE, FROM THE INDICATIVE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms. 

Regular If I am, If thou art, If he, she, or it is. 

Form. If we are, If ye, or you are, If they are. 

Ancient If I be, If thou be, If he, she, or it be. 

Form. If we be, If ye, or you be, If they be. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms. 
Regular. If I love, If thou lovest, If he, she, or it loves. 

If we love, If ye, or you love, If they love. 
Ancient. If I love, If thou love, If he, she, or it love. 

If we love, If ye, or vou love, If they love. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE PRESEISTT TENSE. 297 

Active Voice, Emphatic Forms. 
Regular. If I do love, If thou dost love, If he, she, or it does love, 

If we do love, If ye, or you do love, If they do love. 
Ancient. If I do love, If thou do love, If he, she, or it do love 

If we do love, If ye, or you do love, If they do love. 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms. 
Regular. If I am loving, If thou art loving, If he is loving. 

If we are loving, If ye, you are loving, If they are loving. 
Ancient. If I be loving, If thou be loving, If he be loving. 

If we be loving, If ye, you be loving, If they be loving. 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Regular and Ancient, 

If I am loved, If thou art loved, If he is loved. 

If we are loved, If ye, or you are loved, If they are loved. 

If I be loved, If thou be loved, If he be loved. 

If we be loved, If ye, or you be loved, If they be loved. 

PRESENT TENSE, PROM THE POTENTIAL. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct 

If I may, can, or must be, If we may, can, or must be, 

If thou raayst, canst, or must be, If ye, or you may, can, or must be, 

If he may, can, or must be. If they may, can, or must be. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

It I may, can, or must love, If we may, can, or must love, 

If thou mayst, canst, or must love, If ye, or you may, can, or must lovo, 

If he may, can, or must love. If they may, can, or must love. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct. 
If I may, can, or must be loving, If I may, can, or must be loved, 
If thou mayst, canst, or must be — If thou mayst, canst, or must be — 
If he may, can, or must be loving. If he may, can, or must be loved. 
If we may, can, or must be loving, If we may, can, or must be loved, 
If you may, can, or must be loving, If you may, can, or must be loved, 
If they may, can, or must be loving. If they may, can, or must be loved. 

2. If I may come, I will be there at ten o'clock. If I 
may ride, I would rather do so than walk. 

For the Ancient Form, substitute may and can, for mayst and canst. 



298 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

THE INDEFINITE PAST OR THE IMPERFECT TENSE, FROM THE INDICATIVE! 

Active Voice, Simple Forms. 
Reg. If I was, If thou wast, If he, she, or it was. 

If we were, If ye, or you were, If they were. 

Anc. If I were, If thou wert, If he, she, or it were. 

If we were, If ye, or you were, If they were. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Regular and Ancient. 

If I loved, If thou lovedst, If he, she, or it loved. 

If we loved, If ye, or you loved, If they loved. 

If I loved, If thou loved, If he, she, or it loved. 

If we loved, If ye, or you loved, If they loved. 

Active Voice, Emphatic Forms, Regular and Ancient. 

If I did love, If thou didst love, If he, she, or it did love. 

If we did love, If ye, or you did love, If they did love. 

If I did love, If thou did love, If he, she, or it did love* 

If we did love, If ye, or you did love, If they did love. 

Active Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Regular and Ancient. 

If I was loving, If thou wast loving, If he was loving. 

If we were loving, If you were loving, If they were loving. 

If I were loving, If thou wert loving, If he were loving. 

If we were loving, If you were loving, If they were loving. 

Passive Voice, Periphrastic Forms, Regular and Ancient. 
If I was loved, If thou wast loved, If he was loved. 

If we were loved, If you were loved, If they were loved. 
If I were loved, If thou wert loved, If he were loved. 

If we were loved, If you were loved, If they were loved. 

THE INDEFINITE PAST OR THE IMPERFECT, FROM THE POTENTIAL. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct 
If I might, could, would, &c, be, If we might, could, would, &c., be, 
If thou mightst, couldst, &c, be, If you might, could, &c, be, 
If he might, could, would, &c, be. If they might, could, &c, be. 

For the Ancient Form, substitute might, could, would, and should, for mights^ 
couldst, wculdst, and shouldst. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I might, could, &c, love, If we might, could, would &c, love. 

If thou mightst, couldst, &c, love, If you might, could, &c., love, 
If he might, could, &c, love. If they might, could, &c, love. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE — FIRST DEFINITE PAST TENSE. 299 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct. 

If I might, could, &c, be loving, If I might, could, &c, be loved, 
If thou mightst, &c, be loving, If thou mightst, &c, be loved, 
If he might, could, &c, be loving. If he might, could, &c, be loved. 
If we might, could, &c, be loving, If we might, could, &c, be loved, 
If you might, could, &c, be loving, If you might, could, &c, be loved, 
If they might, &c, be loving. If they might, could, &c, be loved, 

THE FIRST DEFINITE PAST OR THE PERFECT TENSE, FROM THE INDICATIVE. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms. 

If I have been, If thou hast been, If he, she, or it has been 

If we have been, If ye, or you have been, If they have been. 

Active Voice, Simple Form. 

If I have loved, If thou hast loved, If he, she, or it has loved 

If we have loved, If you have loved, If they have loved. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice. 

If I have been loving, If I have been loved, 

If thou hast been loving, If thou ha§t been loved, 

If he, she, or it has been loving. If he, she, or it has been loved. 

If we have been loving, If we have been loved, 

If ye, or you have been loving, If ye, or you have been loved, 

If they have been loving. If they have been loved. 

THE FIRST DEFINITE PAST OR THE PERFECT TENSE, FROM THE POTENTIAL 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I may, can, or must have been, If we may, can, &c, have been, 
If thou mayst, &c, have been, If you may, can, &e., have been, 
If he may, can, &c, have been. If they may, can, &c, have been. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I may, can, or must have loved, If we may, can, &c., have loved, 
If thou mayst, &c, have loved, If you may, can, &c, have loved, 
If he may, can, &c, have loved. If they may, can, &c, have loved. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct. 

If I may, &c, have been loving, If I may, &c, have been loved, 
If thou mayst, — have been loving, If thou mayst, &c, have been loved^ 
If he may, &c, have been loving. If he may, &c, have been loved. 
If we may, &c, have been loving, If we may, &c, have been loved, 
If you may, &c, have been loving, If you may, &c, have been loved, 
If they may, &c, have been loving. If they may, &c, have been loved. 



300 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

THE SECOND DEFINITE PAST OR THE PLUPERFECT TENSE, FROM THE 
INDICATIVE. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct* 

If I had been, If thou hadst been, If he, she, or it had been. 

If we had been, If ye, or you had been, If they had been. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I had loved, If we had loved, 

If thou hadst loved, If ye, or you had loved, 

If he, she, or it had loved. If they had loved. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct 

If I had been loving, If I had been loved, 

If thou hadst been loving, If thou hadst been loved, 

If he, she, or it had been loving. If he, she, or it had been loved. 

If we had been loving, If we had been loved, 

If ye, or you had been loving, If ye, or you had been loved, 

If they had been loving. If they had been loved. 

THE SECOND DEFINITE OR THE PLUPERFECT, FROM THB 
POTENTIAL. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I might, could, &c, have been, If we might, could, &c, have been, 
If thou mightst, &c, have been, If you might, could, &c, have been, 
If he might, could, &c, have been. If they might, could — have been. 

Active Voice, Simple Forms, Direct. 

If I might, could, &c, have loved, If we might, could, &c., have loved, 
If thou mightst, &c, have loved, If you might, could, &c, have loved, 
If he might, could, &c., have loved. If they might, could — have loved. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct 

If I might, &c, have been loving, If I might, &c, have been loved, 
If thou mightst have been loving, If thou mightst — have been loved, 
If he might, &c, have been loving. If he might, &c, have been loved. 
If we might, &c, have been loving, If we might, &c., have been loved, 
If you might — have been loving, If you might, &c, have been loved, 
If they might — have been loving. If they might, &c, have been loved. 
3. Be thou a ghost, or goblin, I'll speak to thee. If 
thou he a ghost-*— 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE DEFINITE OR SECOND FUTURE. 301 

4. Knew he this truth, enough for man to know ; — 

THE INDEFINITE FUTURE OR THE FIRST FUTURE, FROM THE INDICATiVH 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I shall, or will be, If we shall, or will be, 

If thou shalt, or wilt be, If ye, or you shall, or will be, 

If he, she, or it shall, or will be. If they shall, or will be. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 
If I shall, or will love, If we shall, or will love, 

xf thou shalt, or wilt love, If ye, or you shall, or will love, 

If he, she, or it shall, or will love. If they shall, or will love. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct, 

If I shall, or will be loving, If I shall, or will be loved, 

If thou shalt, or wilt be loving,^ If thou shalt, or wilt be loved, 

If he shall, or will be loving. If he, she, or it shall — be loved. 

If we shall, or will be loving, If we shall, or will be loved, 

If ye, or you shall* — be loving, If ye, or you shall, or will be loved, 

If they 3hall, or will be loving. - If they shall, or will be loved. 

THE DEFINITE FUTURE OR THE SECOND FUTURE, FROM THE INDICATIVE. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I shall, or will have been, If we shall, or will have been, 

If thou shalt, or wilt have been, If ye, or you shall — have been, 
If he, she, or it shall — have been. If they shall, or will have been. 

Active Voice, Simple Form, Direct. 

If I shall, or will have loved, If we shall, or will have loved, 

If thou shalt, or wilt have loved, If ye, or you shall — -have loved, 
If he, she, or it shall — have loved. If they sh#U, or will have loved. 

Active Voice — Periphrastic Form — Passive Voice, Direct. 

[f I shall, or will have been loving, If I shall, or will have been loved, 
II thou shalt have been loving, If thou shalt have been loved, 
If he — shall have been loving. If he — shall have been loved. 
If we shall have been loving, If we shall have been loved, 

If ye, or you shall have been loving, If ye, or you shall have been loved, 
If they shall have been loving. If they shall have been loved. 



GBAMMAK. 



[chap. IV. 



108. An Outline of the Conjugation of the Trans- 
itive Verb. To see, Irregular. Arranged according to 
Tense. 

In the following, the Singular is given ; let the pupils supply the Plural 
Principal Parts, To see, I saw, Seeing, Sun. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. To see, 

PAETICIPIAL MOOD. Seeing, 

INDICATIVE. 

Simp, j 

Emp. 



I see, 
Seel? 



\ Direct, 

I Inter. 

\ Direct. I do see, 

[ Inter. Do I see? 



Periphrastic. 



Act. 



H 



Pas. 



Direct. 
Inter. 
Direct. 
Inter. 



I am seeing, 
Am I seeing? 
I am seen, 
Am I seen ? 



To be seeing, 
Being seen. 



Thou seest 
Seest thou ? 
Thou dost see, 
Dost thou see ? 



Thou art seeing, 
Art thou seeing ? 
Thou art seen, 
Art thou seen ? 



To be seen. 



He sees, &c 
Sees he ? &c. 
He does see, <fcc. 
Does he see ? <Scc 



He is seeing. 
Is he seeing? 
He is seen. 
Is he seen ? 



IMPEEATIVE. Simp. 
Emp. 

( Act. 



Periphrastic 
POTENTIAL 

Periphrastic. 



[ Pas. 



See thou, or see you, or see. 

Do thou see, or do you see, or do see. 

Be thou seeing, or be you seeing, or be seeing. 

Do thou be seeing, or do you be seeing, or do be seeing, 

Be thou seen, or be you seen, or be seen. 

Do thou be seen, or do be seen, or be seen. 



I may see, 
May I see ? 



Thou mayst see, 
Mayst thou see ? 



He may see. 
May he see ? 



% 



Act. 



Pas. 



J Direct. I may be seeing, 

( Inter. May I be seeing? 

j Direct. I may be seen, 

( Inter. May I be seen ? 



Thou mayst be seeing, He may be seeing. 
Mayst thou be seeing"? May he be seeing? 



Thou mayst be seen, 
Mayst thou be seen ? 



SUBJUNCTIVE, from the Indicative. 



*H!& 



If I see, 
If I see, 



Emp. 



I Reg. 
\ Ave. 



If I do see, 
If I do see, 

Periphrastic. 

Act ■! ^ c £ m ^ * ara seeing, 
j Anc. If I be seeing, 

p j Reg. If I am seen, 
' ( Anc. If I be seen, 



If thou seest, 
If thou see, 
If thou dost see, 
If thou do see, 



If thou art seeing, 
If thou be seeing, 
If thou art seen, 
If thou be seen, 



He may be seen. 
May he be seen? 



If he sees. 
If he see. 
If he does see. 
If he do see. 

If he is seeing. 
If he be seeing. 
If he is seen. 
If he be seen. 



If he may see. 
If he may see. 



SUBJUNCTIVE, from the Potential. 

Simp i Re &' If * mii ? see ' If tnoT1 ma ? st see > 

* ( Anc. If I may see, If thou may see, 

Periphrastic. 

Act \ Re ° r ' ^ * ma y k e seeing, If thou mayst be seeing. If he may be seeing. 

* 1 Anc. If I may be seeing, If thou may be seeing, If he may be seeing; 

p j Reg. If I may be seen, If thou mayst be seen, If he may be seen. 

\ Anc If I may be seen, If thou may be seen, If he may be seen. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB, TO TEACH. 303 

109. Synopsis of To teach, Transitive and Irreg- 
ular. 

Principal Parts. To teach, I taught, — teaching, — taught. 
Present Tense, Active and Passive. 

Infinitive. To teach, To be teaching, To be taught. 

Participle. — teaching, — being taught. 
First Person, Singular. 

Indicative. I teach. Teach I? I do teach. Do I teach? I am 
teaching. Am I teaching? I am taught. Am I taught? Imp. — 
Potential. I may, can, or must teach. May, can, or must I teach ? 1 
may, can, or must be teaching. May, can, or must I be teaching? I 
may, can, or must be taught. May, can, or must I be taught ? Sub- 
junctive. If I teach. If I do teach. If I am teaching. If I am 
taught. If I may teach. If I may be teaching. If I may be taught. 

Second Person, Singular. 

Indicative. Thou teachest, or you teach. Teachest thou, or teach 
you ? Thou dost teach, or you do teach. Dost thou teach, or do you 
teach ? Thou art teaching, or you are teaching. Art thou teaching, or 
are you teaching? Thou art taught, or you are taught. Art thou 
taught, or are you taught? Imperative. Teach thou, or teach you, 
or teach. Do thou teach, or do you teach, or do_ teach. Be thou teach- 
ing, or be you teaching, or be teaching. Do thou be teaching, or do 
you be teaching, or do be teaching. Be thou taught, or be you taught, 
or be taught. Do thou be taught, or do you be taught, or do be taught. 
Potential. Thou mayst teach. Mayst thou teach ? Thou mayst be 
teaching. Mayst thou be teaching ? Thtfu mayst be taught. Mayst 
thou be taught? Subjunctive. If thou teachest, or if thou, or you 
teach. If thou dost teach, or if thou, or you do teach. If thou art, or 
you are teaching, or if thou, or you be teaching. If thou art. or you 
are taught, or if thou, or you be taught. If thou mayst teach, or if 
thou, or you may teach. If thou mayst be teaching, or if thou, or you 
may be teaching. If thou mayst be taught, or if thou, or you may be 
taught. 

Third Person, Singular. 

Indicative. He teaches school. Teaches he school? He does 
teach school. Does he teach school ? He is teaching school. Is he 
teaching school ? School is taught by him. Is school taught by him? 
Potential. He may teach school. May he teach school ? He may 
be teaching school. May he be teaching school ? School may be 
taught by him. May school be taught by him? Subjunctive. If he 
teaches school, or if he teach school. If he does teach school, or if he 



304 GRAMMAB. [CHAP. IV 

do teach school. If he is teaching school, or if he be teaching school. 
If school is taught by him, or if school be taught by him. If he may, 
can, or must teach school. If he may, can, or must be teaching school. 
If school may, can, or must be taught by him. 

110. To Conjugate a verb Negatively, place the 
negative adverb not, after the verb, or after the first 
auxiliary. In the Infinitive, and Participial Moods, 
place the negative before the verb. 

Infinitive. Not to love. Not to be loving. Not to be loved. Not 
to have loved. Not to have been loving. Not to have been loved. 
Participial. Not loving. Not being loved. Not having been loved - 
Indicative. I love not. Love I not? I do not love. Do I not love? 
I am not loving. Am I not loving ? I am not loved. Am I not loved ? 
Imperative. Love not thou. Do not thou love. Be not thou loving. 
Do thou not be loving. Love not. Do not love. Potential. I may 
not love. May not I love ? I may not be loving. May not I be loving ? 
I may not be loved. May not I be loved? Subjunctive. Same as 
the Indicative, and Potential, by prefixing a Limiting Connective. 

Rules for the Attributes or Properties of Verbs. 

Rule I. When the subject noun names the actor or first 
primary idea, the Verb must be put in the Active Voice. 

Rule II. When the subject noun names the receiver, the 
Verb must be put in the Passive Voice. 

Rule III. When the%ubject noun is in the nominative case, 
the Verb must be limited by the Person and Number of its sub- 
ject noun. 

First Exception. When the subject noun of a subject clause is 
apparently in the nominative case, the Verb in the subject clause 
must not be limited by Person and Number. 

Second .Exception. When the subject noun of a subject clause is 
apparently in the nominative case, the Verb, which predicates of the 
subject clause, must be limited by the Person and Number of the 
subject noun of the clause, instead of the Person and Number of 
the subject clause. 

Third Exception. — In the English language, although a subject 
noun be in the nominative, its Verb, in the participial mode, must 
not be limited by Person and Number. 



ATTRIBUTES OF VERBS. 305 

Rule IV. When we is used for I, and you for thou, the 
Plural Number must be attributed to the Verb. 

Rule V. When the connector, ant>, joins the clauses of a 
compound sentence, contracted in its affirmers, the Verb which 
is expressed must take the Plural Number, although its own 
subject noun may be in the Singular. 

First Exception. When a distributive adjective is joined to a 
subject noun, Rule V. must not be applied to its Verb. 

1. Every man, woman, and child demands it. 

Second Exception. When subject nouns are used in apposition, 
or synonymously, Rule V. must not be applied to the Verb. 

2. This poet, statesman, and general, was born in ob- 
scurity. 

Rule VI. Wlien a compound sentence, whose clauses are 
joined by the connector, or, is contracted in its affirmers, the 
Verb expressed must be limited by the Person and Number of 
its own subject noun. 

3. Either I, or they are to do it. Either they, or I am to 
do it. 

First Exception. If the second subject noun be explanatory of 
the first, the Verb must be limited by the Person and Number of 
the first subject noun. 

4. -The Palisades, a row of sharpened stakes, defend the 
building. A row of sharpened stakes or palisades defends 
the building. 

Ruue VTI. An intransitive Verb, between two subject, nouns, 
must be limited by the Person and Number of the subject noun 
before it, unless the sentence be transposed. 

5. I am dust and ashes. These dollars are my money. 
My money is these dollars. Death is the wages of sin. 



306 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

Rule VDI. When a collective subject noun names a group 
of objects as a unit or one, the Singular Number must be attri- 
buted to its Verb; but, when the subject noun refers to the 
individuals of a group, the Plural Number must be attributed 
to its Verb. 

6. The army was defeated with great slaughter. 

7. The Committee were unanimous in their opinions. 

8. The jury was charged very carefully by the judge, and 
yet they could not agree. 

Rule IX. When the Verb is limited by person and number, 
it must be used in a Limited or Finite Mode. 

Rule X. When the Verb is not limited by person and num- 
ber, it must be used in an Unlimited or Infinite Mode. 

Analysis of the Verb. 

1. The 6 son 1 sought 2 to 4 recover 2 his 7 lost 6 estates 8 
General Analysis. Logically, the son, etc., is a complex thought, 
expressed by the formula ; — 

P S T = P S TS^T- Translate. 

Rhetorically, the son, etc., is a complex sentence, having two clau- 
ses ; of which, the first clause, the son sought, is a principal independent 
clause, and the second clause, [himself] to recover his lost estates, is a 
subordinate clause, dependent in thought and in form, used as the first 
object of the affirmer, sought ; its subject is son, understood ; its affirmer, 
recover, related to the subject, son, by to ; its first object, estate, having, 
as its adjuncts, his, lost 

Special Analysis. Sought, logically, is an action or second primary 
idea ; rhetorically, it is the predicate of the subject, son ; therefore, 
grammatically, sought is a Yerb. It is an irregular, transitive, simple 
Yerb ; from the Yerb, to seek ; its principal parts are ; to seek, son 
sought, seeking, sought. It has the attributes, active voice, third per- 
son, singular number, indicative mode, past tense, simple form, historic. 
Its Forms are ; Simple, the son sought (Here !) ; Emphatic, the son did 
seek ; Periphrastic, Active, the son was seeking ; Passive, the son was 
sought. Rules III., Y., XI. 

Grammatical Analysis or Parsing. Recover, is a regular, transitive, 
simple Yerb ; from the Yerb, to recover; its principal parts are; to 
recover, son recovered, recovering, recovered. It has the attributes, 
active voice, no person, no number (Rule Y. — Pirst Exception), infin- 
itive mode, (Rule XII.) present tense ; etc. 



ANALYSES OF THE VERB. 



507 



If 



5-3 






E 9 



£ I 



H 
o 



I 

o 
d 

1 



*£., 






■3 

be 

e 

M 



s * 

I 7 



3 

! 

1 



► & 



a* 

o 

ft 

03 



308 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 



V. Adverbs. 

The science of the Adverb includes ; first, the Definition; 
second, the Classifications; third, the Attributes, and the 
Means of Knowing them ; fourth, the Conjugation ; and 
fifth, the Syntax of the Adverb. 

First, The Definition. 

1 . An Advekb is a word, a phrase, or a clause used, in a 
sentence, as an adjunct of a verb or of another adjunct, to which 
it is not related by of, or by an apostrophe. 

Note L Adverbs are generally formed by the contraction of a re- 
lator and a second object, sometimes with, and sometimes without, 
adjunct words. 

Examples.. 

1. All orders thankfully received, and very promptly 
executed. All orders received in a thankful manner, and 
executed in a very prompt manner. 

Parsing. Thankfully is an adverb ; because, it is used as an adjunct 
of the verb, received. 

Very is an adverb ; because, it is used as an adjunct of the adverb, 
promptly. 

Promptly is an adverb ; because, etc. 

Very is an adverb ; because, it is an adjunct of the adjective, 
'prompt 

Note II. In the rhetorical use of language, Adjectives or Ad- 
nouns, and Adverbs are described as adjuncts. Their grammatical 
distinction is that Adjectives are adjuncts of nouns, while, adverbs are 
adjuncts of words which are not nouns. In both cases, adjuncts related t 
by of or by an apostrophe, and the elements of a compound adjective, 
are excepted. 

2. Now is the time for war ; we'll talk of peace no more. 

3. He was truly more energetic than his brother; but less 
thoughtfully inclined. 

4. Raise her up tenderly, lift her with care, fashioned so 
slenderly, so young and so fair. 



THE CLASSIFCATIOSTS OF ADVEEBS. 309 

Note III. Adverbs, like pronouns, are not absolutely necessary 
parts of speech. They are, however, convenient and pleasing, because 
they both shorten an expression and render it euphonious. 

5. Piously, tenderly, devotedly, the mother bent o'er the 
lowly couch of her only child. 

The Classifications. 

2. Second, the Classifications. Adverbs are 
classified in two ways ; according to the mood or feeling 
of the narrator ; and, according to their signification. 

3. First Classification. According to the mood 

or feeling of the narrator, Adverbs are divided into six 

kinds ; namely, Interrogative, Responsive, Affirmative, 

Negative, Intensive, and Exclamative. 

Note I. Instead of calling these Interrogative Adverbs, Responsive 
Adverbs, etc., they may be described as Adverbs used Interrogatively, 
Bespons\vely, etc. 

4. An Interrogative Adverb is one which is used in 
asking a question. 

Examples. 

1. How did he behave ? When did ne come ? Where was 
the boy ? Why are you here ? 

5. A Responsive Adverb is one which is used in an- 
swering a question. 

2. He behaved well; properly, badly. He came yesterday ; 
just now ; to-day. The boy was here; there; yonder. 

6. An Affirmative Adverb is one which repeats or gives 
emphasis to an answer. 

3. Have you come ? Yes, I have come. Has he gone ? 
Verily, he has gone. Is this all ? Indeed, it is. 

7. A Negative Adverb is one used in contradicting 
a question, or olenying an assertion. 

4. Have you been there ? I have not been there. Wo / 



310 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 



8. An Intensive Adverb is one which strengthens or 
adds force to its principal adverb. 

5. He has neither too much nor too little, who has just 
enough. 

Parsing. Too is an intensive Adverb, adjunct of much. Too is inten- 
sive, because it enlarges or adds to the meaning of its principal word, 
much. 

9 # An Exglamative Adverb is one which is used to ex- 
press feeling, passion, or emotion. 

6. Merrily every bosom boundeth. Merrily, oh I Merrily, 
oh! 

7. Now school is done, away we fly. Hurrah ! Hurrah ! 
Hurrah ! 

10. Second Classification, According to significa- 
tion, Adverbs are divided into five kinds ; Adverbs of 
Manner ', Time, Order^ Place, and Degree. 

1 1 . Adverbs of Manner show how, or why an act occurs, 
or a property exists; and hence, include those, which express 
cause, doubt, mode, or quality. 

Examples. 

1. Interrogative. How did you find the book ? By seek- 
ing carefully. 

Parsing. How is an interrogative Adverb of manner; adjunct of 
Mdfind. 

Carefully is responsive Adverb of manner ; adjunct of seeking. 

2. Interrogative. Why sports the tender lamb ? Because 
He fears no evil now. 

3. Doubt. Perhaps the ship will come to-morrow. It may, 
possibly, be here now. 

Substitute perchance, per adventure, haply, etc., for perhaps, oi possibly^ 
tnd then analyze them. 



THE CLASSIFICATIONS OF ADVERBS. 311 

4. Mode. Thus have mankind lived and died. In this 
manner, etc. 

5. So conduct thyself that thou live not like a bankrupt in 
spirits. 

1.2m Adverbs of Time show when, or how often an act 
occurs, or exists ; as, present, past, future, relative, absolute, and 
occasional time. 

6. Interrogative. When will we recite ? Now ; presently ; 
to-morrow. 

At what time will we recite ? At this time we will recite. 

7. How often have you recited? Daily ; weekly ; seldom, 
etc. 

8. Time present It rains now, and yet the sun shines. 

9. Time past. As I have already said ; this happened yes- 
terday ; long ago ; recently ; lately ; anciently, etc. 

10. Time future. "We shall know soon; to-morrow; ere- 
long ; by-and-by, etc. 

11. Time relative. He came early ; late; seasonably, etc. 

1 2. James will tell us the news, when he comes. 

When will James tell us the news ? Answer. When he comes. In 
this example, the clause, When he comes, is used as the adjunct of 
tell; while, when is used as the adjunct of comes. The formula is, 

Y 

X~y~( — x Y ^' ^ rans ^ a ^ on == <£> James ; Y will tell us, when he 
comes; Z, the news. But Y— Y + X Y. That is; Y, will tell [to] 
us ; ( + ) when ; X, he ; Y, comes. 

Note I. Some prefer to make when a Connective Adverb, connecting 
the two clauses, and qualifying both verbs at the same time. This 
resolves the example into, James will tell us the news at that time, at 
which time James comes. 

13. When James comes, then he will tell us the news. 

14. Time absolute. It will remain here for ever; perpetu* 
ally ; continually ; eternally, etc. 

15. Time occasional. Ralph is here often; seldom; occa* 
sionally ; daily ; weekly, etc. 

13. Adverbs of Order show the relation of events as to 
direction, sequences, etc. 



312 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

1 6. They went directly ; indirectly ; correctly ; orderly ; dis* 
orderly, etc. 

14:. Adverbs of Place show when, whence, or whither the 
act occurs, or exists. 

1 7. Interrogative. Where is my book ? Ans. Here. 
In what place is my book? In this place is your book. 

18. Whence comest thou; is it far hence? 
From what place comest thou ; is it far from this placet 

19. "Whither shall we flee ? Answer. Thither. 
To what place shall we flee ? To this place ye shall flee. 

20. In which place. You will find it here; there; every- 
where; above, etc. 

21. From which place. Whence we came. Thence we 
came. Hence we came. 

From which place we came. From that place we came. From this 
place we came. 

Note II. Before these Adverbs of place, the preposition should 
not be used. Whence we came ; not, From whence we came. 

22. To which place. Whither thou goest, I will go. 

15. Adverbs of Degree show how much is intended. 

23. Inter. How much ow est thou? Ans. Much ; little, etc. 

24. Equality. We have enough ; as much as we desire. 

25. Abundance. The dress is very rich; exceedingly; ex- 
travagantly, etc. 

26. The fruit is fully ripe; entirely ; completely ; perfectly. 

Note III. Those Adverbs, which, as relative adjuncts, join ona 
clause to another, are sometimes caUed Conjunctive Adverbs. 

27. Eemain until I return. 

The Attributes. 

16. Third, the Attributes, and the Means of 
KNOWING- them. Some Adverbs have an attribute or 
property called Comparison. 



THE POSITIVE DEGREE. 313 

Note I. Many Adverbs do not have this attribute ; or, many 
Adverbs are not compared. 

The Comparison of the Adverb . 

17. Comparison is an attribute, which an adverb derives 
from its use in comparing two or more verbs, two or more adverbs, 
or two or more adjectives, in regard to the same attribute or 
property. 

Note II. The Comparisons of the adjuncts, Adjective, Adverb, is 
the same in purpose and in form. The purpose of each being to com- 
pare two or more expressions with reference to the same attribute in 
each ; the Comparison of the Adjective beiug a comparison between 
two or more nouns ; while, the Comparison of the Adverb is a com- 
parison between two or more verbs, two or more adverbs, or two or 
more adjectives. 

Examples. 

1. I came near, you came nearer, but he came nearest 

2. John acts wisely, Jane, more wisely, Ruth, most wisely. 

18. Adverbs have two forms of Comparison; the 
Regular, and the Irregular. 

19. Adverbs have three degrees or grades of Com- 
parison ; namely, the Positive, the Comparative, and the 
Superlative. 

The Positive Degree. 

30. The Positive Degree is attributed to an adverb when 
it is used to compare a certain property of a verb with the same 
property in all other verbs'; or, when it compares a certain 
property of an adjunct with the same property in all 'other 
adjuncts. 

Examples. 

1. He acts wisely. She acts well. The people drew near. 
They are here now. They run together. 

Parsing. Wisely is an adverb of manner. It has the attribute, 
positive Degree; because, it compares the verb, acts, with all other 
actions of this kind. 

14 



314 GRAMMAE. [CHAP. IV. 

2. He can do much who can keep himself still. 

The Comparative Degree. 

21. The Comparative Degree is attributed to an adverb 
when it is used to compare one verb with another, or one adjunct 
with another adjunct, in reference to the same attribute or property. 

3. He acts more wisely than his brother [acts]. His house 
is more handsomely furnished than yours, but it is less pleas- 
antly situated. The crowd drew nearer the judgment seat. 

Parsing. More wisely is an adverb of manner. It has the compara- 
tive Degree ; because, it is used in comparing the first verb, acts, with 
the second verb, acts, in reference to the same attributes, wisely. 

4. This road is more direct than that road, but that road is 
more travelled than this. 

Parsing. More is an adverb of degree. It has the comparative 
Degree ; because, it is used in comparing the adjective, direct, which is 
expressed, with the adjective, direct, not expressed, with reference to 
the same property. 

Note I. In the Comparative Degree, the second clause of the com- 
parison is introduced by the connector, than. Hence, the subject of 
this second clause should always be in the nominative case. A few errors 
in this respect are in common usage, probably because they are more 
euphonious than the correct forms. See Prepositions. 

5. "Than whom, none higher sat." Than who [person], 
none higher sat. Than which person sat none higher sat. 

6. " Than him, none was ever braver." Than he, none 
was ever braver. None was ever braver than he was brave. 

The Superlative Degree. 

22. The Superlative Degree is attributed to an adverb, 
when it is used to compare one verb with a definite number of 
verbs, or an adjunct with a definite number of adjuncts, with 
reference to the same attribute or property. 

7. He acted most wisely of them all. The man who came 
nearest to the house, entered first. 



' THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 315 

Parsing. Most is an Adverb of degree. It has the attribute, super- 
lative Degree ; because, it is used in comparing one Adverb, wisely, with 
certain other Adverbs, wisely, understood, in reference to the same 
property, degree. 

8. The slow horse ran slowly. The slower horse ran more 
slowly. The slowest horse ran most slowly. 

Note II. When no is used as an Adverb, it must be used as an 
adjunct of an adjective in the comparative degree. No should never 
be used as' an adjunct of a verb. 

9. No sooner do they meet than they fight. 

10. Tell me whether you will, or not. That is, or will not 

Error. Tell me whether you will, or no. 

Note III. The repetition of a negative Adverb strengthens the 
negation. 

11. I will never, never, never forget you. 

Note IV. Two negations in the same clause destroy each other 
and render the meaning affirmative. 

12. I did not do nothing. Then you did do something. 
1 3.. Nor did they not perceive their evil flight. 

Note V. Never is composed of not ever; and hence, is directly the 
opposite of ever in signification, and should not be confounded with it. 

14. I have seldom, or never failed to perceive it. 
Faulty. I have seldom, or ever failed to perceive it. 

15. Listen not to the voice of the charmer, charm he never 
so wisely. 

This should be, charm he ever so wisely. 

16. Take her up tenderly. Lift her with care; 
Fashioned so tenderly, young, and so fair. 

17. "Welcome the stranger with kindly affection; 
Hopefully, truthfully, not with dejection. 

18. Ten censure wrong for one who writes amiss; 
A fool might once himself alone expose ; 
Now one, in verse, makes many more in prose. 



316 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

Means of knowing Degrees of Comparison. 

23. The different Degrees, used in the Comparison 
of Adverbs, may be known in three ways ; — 

First The Positive Degree is the first or radical 
form of the Adverb. 

Second. The Comparative Degree, in its Regular 
Comparison, is formed by adding the suffix modifica- 
tion, er, to the Positive ; or, by using the adjuncts, 
more, less, with the Positive. 

Examples. 

1. Those who came nearer, were more pleasantly situated 
for hearing what was said, but the others were less crowded. 

The Comparative Degree, in its Irregular Comparison, 
is formed by using a word different from the Positive. 

2. This class reads well, but that class reads letter ; while, 
that class reads worse. 

Third. The Superlative Degree, in its Regular Com- 
parison, is formed by adding the suffix modification, est, 
to the Positive form j or, by using the adjuncts, most, 
least, with the Positive. 

3. Some drew near, while others drew nearer, but these 
drew nearest. 

4. When I speak soberly, you speak more soberly, he 

speaks most soberly. 

5. That stream flows rapidly, the next flows less rapidly, 
while this flows the least rapidly. 

The Superlative Degree, in its Irregular Comparison, 
is formed by substituting another word for the Positive. 

6. You read well, Charles reads better, but Louise reads 
best. 



ATTRIBUTES OF THE ADVERB. 



317 



24. The Comparison of Adverbs is shown by the fol- 
lowing ; — 

TABLE. 

REGULAR COMPARISONS. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Near 


nearer 


nearest 


Nearly 


more nearly 


most nearly 


Nearly 


less nearly 


least nearly 


Wisely 


more wisely 


most wisely 


Wisely 


less wisely 

IRREGULAR COMPARISONS. 


least wisely 


Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Well 


better 


best 


Badly, or ill 


worse 


worst 


Much 


more 


most 


Little 


less 


least 


Ear 


farther 


farthest 


Eorth 


further 

DEFECTIVE IN COMPARISON. 


furthest 


Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 





formerly 


first 


Upper 





uppermost 



Bules for Attributes. 

Rule I. When the comparison is made between two attri- 
butes only, the Adverb must be put in the Comparative Degree. 

1. The girl was more nearly allied to the family than the 
boy. Of the two, the girl was more nearly allied to the 
family. 

Incorrect. Of the two, the girl was the most nearly allied to the 
family. 

Rule II. When a comparison between one attribute and a 
definite number, three or more, is made, the adverb mast have 
the Superlative Degree. 



318 GRAMMAS. [CHAP. IV. 

2. Of the three children, the girl is the most nearly allied 
to the family. 

Incorrect Of the three children, the girl is the more nearly allied 
to the family. 

Analysis of the Adverb. 

1. He 71 began 2 early 6 in 4 the 6 morning 6 . 

General Analysis. Logically, he began, etc., is a simple thought of 
two parts ; he is the primary idea in the first part ; began early in the 
morning, is the second part, of which, began is the second primary idea ; 
early, an idea subordinate to began ; in, idea of relation between morn- 
ing and began ; the, subordinate idea, having an incidental relation to 
morning; morning, an idea subordinate to began, joined by the idea of 
relation, in. 

Rhetorically, he began, etc., is a simple sentence, actively constructed ; 
its principal words are, he, began; its adjunctive words, early, in, 
morning ; its relator, in. 

Special Analysis. Rhetorically, he personates the subject; began, 
the predicate of the subject personated by he; early, adjunct of began; 
in, the relator of the subsequent, morning, to its antecedent, began; 
the, an adjunct of morning ; morning, second object of began, to which 
it is related by in. 

Grammatical Analysis. Early is an adverb of time, belonging to the 
affirmer, began ; it is in the positive degree ; and is compared ; Positive, 
early (Here!); Comparative, earlier; Superlative, earliest. 

Note I. In the morning may be parsed as an Adverbial phrase, or 
each word may be parsed separately. 

2. They 71 laughed 2 , (while 6 you 71 were 2 speaking 2 seri- 
ously 6 ). 601 - 

Parsing. While you, etc., is a clause adverb, or an adverbial dftuse, 
of time ; belonging to the affirmer, laughed. It is not compared* 



ANALYSES OF THE ADVERB. 



319 






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320 GRAMMAJS. [CHAP. IV. 



VI. Prepositions. 

The science of the Preposition includes, first, the Defini- 
tions ; second, the Classification ; third, the Syntax of the 
Preposition. 

First, The Definitions. 

1 • A Preposition is a word which, in a sentence, has the 
use or office of a relator. 

Note I. Preposition is an unscientific or a barbarous term. It might, 
with equal propriety, be applied to other grammatical classes ; as, to 
adjuncts whose relation is shown by position, etc. Students may be 
allowed to use the term, Relator, in its stead. 

Examples. 

1. In the same year, Hudson's ship, the Half-Moon, was 

also sent to the Hudson River on a like errand by the company. 

Parsing. In is a preposition. It is a preposition, because, in this 
sentence, it has the use or office of a relator. Its subsequent term is 
the second object noun, year ; its antecedent, the verb, was sent 

2. The affairs of the States are the States' affairs. 

Parsing. Of is a preposition; because, in this sentence, it has the 
use or office of a relator; *ts subsequent term is the adjunct noun, 
States ; its antecedent term is the subject noun, affairs. 

3. A sailor relates the narratives of his voyages. 

4. The study of language relates to all our other studies. 

5. Send the boys to get the bushes, and leave us, girls, to 
arrange the flowers. 

Parsing. To is a preposition ; because, in this sentence, it has the 
use or office of a relator ; its subsequent term is the verb, get; its ante- 
cedent term, the subject noun, girls. 

Second, The Classification. 

3. Prepositions, according to their subsequent terms, are 
divided into three classes, Prepositions of Object Nouns; 
Prepositions of Adjunct Nouns, and Prepositions of Verbs. 



PREPOSITIONS CLASSIFICATIONS. 321 

3. Prepositions of Object Nouns show the relation of 
second object nouns to their verb. These Prepositions are 
found in every language. 

6. This building was erected by 46 its founder on 46 that 
very spot. 

Grammatical Analysis. By is a Preposition of an Object Noun, 
because, it shows the relation of the second object noun, founder, 
to its antecedent verb, erected. 

Note. II. In nearly all languages, the only use of Prepositions is 
to show the relation of a subsequent second object noun to its ante- 
cedent verb. 

7. He journeyed a 46 foot. He journeyed on 46 foot. 

8. He journeyed on in danger and alone. He journeyed 
forward in danger and alone. He continued his journey in 
danger and alone. 

9. Tell us the story of Jack, the Giant Killer. Tell [to] 
us the story of Jack, the Giant Killer. 

10. The man, in the moon, must have been made of moon- 
shine. 

Parsing. Of is a Preposition of an Object Noun; because, it 
shows the relation of the second object noun, moonshine, to its ante- 
cedent verb, must have been made. 

11. Asa paid — William the money. Asa paid the 
money to William. 

12. The enemy slew the people with the sword. The 
people were slain with the sword by the enemy. 

13. The people were slain by the sword. 

Parsing. By is a Preposition ; because, it shows the relation of J 
sword to were slain. Sword, the instrument with which the act was 
done, is taken for enemy, the actor ; hence, by is used instead of with. 
(See Belators.) 

4. A Preposition of an Adjunct Noun shows the relation 
of an adjunct noun to its principal word, which is either a 
noun or an adjective. 

14. The den of a thief is a thief's den. 

14* 



322 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

Parsing. Of is a Preposition of an Adjunct Noun ; because, it 
shows the relation of the adjunct noun, thief, to its principal word, 
which is the noun, den^ 

15. A man, too fond of wealth, is in danger of doing dis- 
honest things. 

The first of is a Preposition of an Adjunct Noun ; because, it shows 
the relation of the adjunct noun, wealth, to its principal or anteced- 
ent, which is the adjective, fond. 

The second of shows the relation of the adjunct clause, doing dis* 
honest things, to its antecedent, which is the noun, danger. 

Note III. The word, of is probably the only one which can really be 
used to name the relation of an adjunct noun to its principal noun. 
Other words may appear to be so used, while, in reality, they are not. 
Thus;— 

16. The man, in the moon, must have been made of moon- 
shine. 

In this example, in appears to show the relation of moon to man ; 
but, in reality, it is the result of a contraction of the sentence, the man, 
who lives in the moon, etc. 

17. In the beginning, the earth was without form. 

18. The horse ran along the road, through the woods, into 
the field. 

19. Tell us the story of Jack, the Giant Killer. 

20. Sing a stanza of "Short Speech Suffices. n 

5. A Preposition of a Verb shows the relation of a verb to 
its own subject noun. This Class of Prepositions is found in 
very few languages. 

21. Teach me to feel another's woe. 

Parsing. To is a Preposition of a Verb ; because, it shows the 
relation of the verb, feel, which is in the infinitive mode, to its own 
subject, personated by me. 

Note IY. To is the only word which is used to show the relation 
of a verb to its own subject noun ; hence, when to is so used, it is 
called the sign of the infinitive mode. After several verbs, such as, 
bid. feel, hear, see, let, etc., the Preposition, to, or the sign of the infini- 
tive mode, may be understood. 

22. He bade me feel another's woe. 

23. I felt the ground shake under mfe 



PREPOSITIONS OF VERBS. 323 

Note V. A Relator and its subsequent term are called a Preposi- 
tional Phrase or an Adverbial Phrase. 

24. In what place is my hat? Where is my hat? In this 
place is your hat. Here is your hat. In that place is your 
hat. There is your hat. 

Note VI. Sometimes Prepositions are used Inceptively. 

25. That he neither writes nor reads is very surprising. 

26. For to me to live is Christ, and to die is gain. 

27. TJiat mind is not matter, is certain. 

Note VII. The subsequent term of a Preposition may be under- 
stood; as, — 

28. The persons within the church were much disturbed 
by the persons without [the church]. 

Note VIII. The Preposition should always precede its subsequent 
term; as, — 

29. Heaven hides the book of fate from all creatures. 

30. Heaven, from all creatures, hides the book of fate. 

31. From all creatures, heaven hides the book of fate. 

32. To whom did you give the book ? 
Incorrect. Whom did you give the book to ? 

33. About whom are you talking? 

Common Error. Whom are you talking about ? Who are you 
talking about ? 

Note IX. A Preposition and its subsequent noun and its adjuncts 
are frequently contracted to a single word. 

34. They fled in haste. They fled hastily. They fled in 
eager haste. They fled eagerly. 

Note X. Sometimes two Prepositions are used together ; in this 
case, supply the omitted part ; or, if this be inconvenient, take them 
together, as a Compound Preposition ; as, — 

35. The place is over beyond Jordan. 
Omit the word, over. 

36. He hath also set the one over against the other. 

37. Heaven from above smiles on the scene. 

That is, Heaven from the sky above us smiles on the scene. 

Note XI. At is used to show the relation of home, places of re- 
sort, and smaller towns ; as, — 

38. I board with my parents at home ; last year I was at 
the Springs ; before that I was at Washington ville. 



324 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV 

Note XII. Action, or state in regard to three or more, is expressed 
by among, amongst, amid, amidst; in regard to two, by between and 
betwixt; as, — 

39. Amid those forest shades, that proudly reared 
Their unshorn beauties toward the fav'ring skies, 
An axe rang sharply. 

40. Betwixt me and thee let there be no strife. 

Note XIII. Action, or state continuing through a certain time, is ex- 
pressed by during ; continuing only a part of the time mentioned, by 
in, or within ; as, — 

41. The bells were rung during the whole time of the fire. 

42. During yesterday ten vessels came into port, which is 
more than the number within the twenty days preceding that 
time ; another is expected in the night, or at an early hour 
in the morning. 

Note XIV. Sometimes a word, generally used as a Preposition, is 
improperly used with a verb which has no second object, either ex- 
pressed or understood. These words are not Prepositions, because 
they have no subsequent terms ; nor are they adverbs. Some gram- 
marians propose to call them Prepositional Adverbs or Adverbial Prepo- 
sitions. They should be caUed errors. Narrators should avoid the use 
of them, should shun them, in the construction of a sentence; while, 
the narratee should correct the sentence before analyzing it. 

43 Such specimens as these are often met with. Error. 

44. The copy was carefully read over. Error. 

Note XV. "Whenever one of these " mean little words " is used 
at the end of a sentence, one error can, and three errors may be found ; 
namely, the first, a logical ; the second, a rhetorical ; and the third, a 
grammatical error. 

45. These conditions were insisted on. 

This is illogical ; on shoul i show the relation between conditions and 
insisted. The attempt is made to use conditio?is as a subject, which can 
not be done, because it names neither an actor nor a receiver. 

46. You saw him, whom I gave it to. 
You saw him, to whom I gave it. 

47. Who were provided for by this arrangement 



ERRONEOUS USES OF PREPOSITIONS. 325 

In this example, we find three kinds of errors. First. It is illogical 
Who belongs to the act, and hence, can not be made a subject, without 
altering the statement. 

Second. It is not rhetorical The relator should precede wlio. 

Third. It is ungramraaiical. Who is the subsequent of for, and 
hence, should be whom. 

Study carefully the following examples. They contain very common 
and yet very gross errors, and should be condemned as much for their 
awkwardness, as for being illogical 

48. "In the consideration of this subject, the fact must not 
be lost sight of." 

49. " This course should be insisted on. 11 

50. " Certain studies must be gone through with, before 
certain other studies are entered upon." 

Note XVI. A few instances occur, in which the second term of a 
comparison is put in the objective instead of the nominative case. In 
these cases, some grammarians call the connector, than, a Preposition, 
equivalent to except. For the correction of this error, see Adjectives 
and Adverbs, Comparative Degree. 

51. Than whom, none higher sat. . Than he, none higher 
sat. None sat higher than he sat. 

The use of whom instead of who must be regarded as a poetic license, 
or grammatical error, made for the sake of euphony. 

52. Temperance and exercise preserve the health, both of 
the body and the mind. 

Note XYII. When a Connective is followed by a contracted clause, 
care must be taken not to obscure the sense by omitting a preposition 
which should be expressed ; thus, ex., 44, should be, and of the mind. 

53. The team passed through the yard and the garden. 
The team passed through the yard and through the garden. 

54. Over the river and over the lake, over the tall grass 
and over the brake, away we hie in our cloud-swept car. 

Note XVIIT. A Preposition must not be used between a first ob- 
ject noun and its verb; since, the relation of a first object noun to its 



326 GRAMMAE. [CHAP. IT. 

verb must be shown either by the meaning of the noun, or by its posi- 
tion, or by both of these means. 

55. While I was reading of it over I discovered my mis- 
take. While I was reading it I discovered my mistake. 

56. He was fond of reading of the history of the war. 

57. Should a school building be surrounded with a fence ? 

58. The place was over beyond Jordan. The place was 
beyond Jordan. 

Note XIX. A Connective must not be used in the place of the 
Preposition, to, as the sign of the Infinitive Mode. 

59. We will try to do it. We will try to avoid it 
We will try and do it. We will try and avoid it. 



Third, The Syntax of the Pbeposition. 

Rule I. A Preposition must precede its subsequent term. 

Rule II. In the English, the preposition, by, must be used 
to show the relation of a second object, which names the actor 
or first primary idea. 

Analyses of the Preposition. 

1. In 46 the 6 morning 5 , the 6 bands 1 of 46 sleep 6 are 2 broken 9 ; 
in 46 the 6 evening 5 , we 71 surrender 2 (ourselves 71 to 46 be 2 bound 8 
by' 6 them 7 ). 3cl 

Log., in is the relation of ; Rhet., in is the relator of 

lence, Gr., in is the Preposition of an Indirect Object Noun. 

Log., of is the relation of ; Rhet., of is the relator of ■ 

hence, Gr., of is the Preposition of an Adjunct Noun. 

To is the relation of ; to is used as the relator of ; hence 

to is the Preposition of a Verb. 



ANALYSES OP THE PBEPOSITIOK. 327 



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328 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV 

VII. Conjunctions. 

The science of the Conjunction includes ; first, the 
Definition; second, the Classification; and third, the Syntax 
of the Conjunction. 

First, The Definition. 

• 1. A Conjunction is a word which, in a sentence, has the 
use or office of a connector. 

Note I. Conjunctions are sometimes called Connectives. 

Examples. 

1. Every man's cause is just in his own eyes; hut, pres- 
ently his neighbor cometh, and he searcheth him. 

Parsing. But is a Conjunction ; because, in this sentence, it has the 
use or office of a connector. 

2. The Lord of Hosts is mightier than thou [art]. 

3. He will depart as soon as the conveyance can be made 
ready. 

Note II. A few examples occur, in which, Conjunctions seem to 
oonnect words only, but even these may be resolved into contracted 
sentences ; so that the Conjunction joins sentences only. 

4. The Eastern Continent is divided into three parts; 
Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Eastern Continent is di- 
vided into three parts, of which parts the first part is Europe, 
and the second part is Asia, and the third part is Africa. 

5. Two and three are five. Two added to three are live. 

2* Second, the Classification. Conjunctions, ac- 
cording to the comparative degree of the clauses zvhich they 
join, are divided into two kinds ; namely, Coordinate 
and Subordinate. > 



COKJTTNOTIONS. 329 

3« A Co-ordinate Conjunction is one which joins one 
clause to another of the same degree, 

Note III. Co-ordinate Conjunctions are sometimes called Extending 
Conjunctions. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The king has houses, and lands, and great riches. 

Grammatical Analysis. And is a Co-ordinate or Extending Con- 
junction; because, it joins clauses of the same degree. 

2. "Will you ride to-day, or, will you walk to-day ? Will 
you ride or walk to day? 

3. He came but he did not stay long. 

4. He went in haste, because he was anxious to see his 
friend. 

4L. A Subordinate Conjunction is one which joins a co-- 
ordinate Clause to a verb, to an adjective, or to an adverb of a 
clause having a higher degree. 

Note IT. Subordinate Conjunctions are sometimes called Limiting 
Conjunctions^ 

5. You cannot go, unless your teachers permit you. 

Parsing. Unless is a subordinate or limiting Conjunction; be- 
cause, it joins the subordinate clause, your teachers permit you, to 
the verb, cannot go, of the higher clause, you cannot go. 

6. You will take cold, if you sit in that draught. 

7. He waited until I came home. 

Note Y. When a Conjunction joins a dependent clause to an ad- 
jective, the adjective and the Conjunction are used Cor relatively. 
When the Conjunction joins a dependent clause to an adverb, the 
adverb and the Conjunction are used Correlatively. 

8. He gave more attention than you gave. 

Parsing/ Than is a subordinate Conjunction used correlatively with 
more ; because, by the antecedent adjective, more, we know that the 
second term of comparison must follow, and that the clause, expressing 
this second term, must be joined to the adjective, more, by the sub« 
ordinate Conjunction, than. * 

9. To-day we will study more diligently than we did yes- 
terday. 



330 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

10. We dismounted, as quickly as we could, and concealed 
ourselves in the bushes. 

Parsing. As (as we could) is a subordinate Conjunction, used cor- 
relaihtly with the adverb, as ; because it connects the dependent 
clause, ice could [dismount], to as [quickly], an adverb in another 
clause of a higher degree. 

11. No sorrow is so great that it can not be assuaged by 
time. 

12. I will teach this subject as well as I can. 

Note VI. Sometimes, Conjunctions seem to connect words in 
apposition. This is due, probably, to a contraction. 

13. On this occasion, Mr. Smith officiated as chairman. 

14. On this occasion Mr. Smith officiated as a chairman 
officiates. 

1 5. He acts as if he owned the whole city. He acts as 
he would act, if he owned the whole city. 

16. I have as much money, as I need. I have, as much 
money, as the money is, which money I need. 

The Syntax of the Conjunction* 

Third, the Syntax of Hie Conjunction. 

Rule I. The Conjunction must precede its subse* 
quent clause. 

Examples. 

1. I will heed not your words, because ye have not heeded 
mine. Because ye have heeded not my words, I will heed 
not yours. 

Rule II. When two or more clauses, joined by co* 
ordinate Conjunctions, are contracted in their verbs, the Conjunc* 
tion must be expressed before the last clause. 

Analyses of the Conjunction. 

1. Glory be to Thy name, as it was in the beginning, is 
now, and ever shall be. Glory be unto Thy name, as it was 



ANALYSES OF THE CONJUNCTION. 331 

in the beginning, and glory be to Thy name, as it is now, and 
glory be to Thy name, as it ever shall be. • 

General Analysis. Logically, as is a co-ordinate idea of connec- 
tion between the simple thoughts, glory be to Thy name, it was in 
the beginning ; rhetorically, as is a co-ordinate connector, joining 
the dependent clause, it was in the beginning, to the predicate, be, 
of the principal clause, glory be to Thy name ; therefore, gram- 
matically, as is a Conjunction. 

Grammatical Analysis or Parsing. As is a co-ordinate Conjunc- 
tion. It precedes its clause, it was in the beginning, according to 
Rule I. 

General Analysis. And, logically, is the co-ordinate idea of connec- 
tion between the two compound thoughts, glory be to Thy name, as it 
was in the beginning ; glory be to Thy name, as it is now ; rhetorically, 
and is a co-ordinate connector, joining two compound clauses of the 
same degree; therefore, grammatically, and is a co-ordinate Con- 
junction. 

Grammatical A nalysis or Parsing. And is a co-ordinate Conj unc- 
tion, etc. It precedes the clause, etc. which it connects. 

2. As is the boy, so is the man. Such is the man, as is 
the boy. 

General Analysis. Logically, as is a co-ordinate idea of connec- 
tion between the dependent thought, is the boy, and the subordinate 
idea, so, such, in the principal thoughts, so is the man, such is the 
man; rhetorically, as is a co-ordinate connector, joining the co- 
ordinate clause, is the boy, to the adjuncts, so, such, in the principal 
clauses, so is the man, such is the man ; therefore, grammatically, 
as is a co-ordinate Conjunction, used correlatively with the adjec- 
tives, so, such. 



332 



GRAMMAR. 



[CHAP. IV. 



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EXCLAMATIONS. 533 

VIII. Exclamations. 

The science of the Exclamation includes; first, the Defi- 
nitions; second, the Classification; thirds the Syntax of the 
Exclamation. 

First, the Definitions. 
1. An Exclamation is a word, a phrase, a clause, or a sen- 
fence, which, in a sentence, is used to express some feeling 
or emotion of the speaker. 

Examples. 

1. Rudely I "seized it. Too rudely; alas! 

Parsing. Alas ! is a word exclamation ; because, it is used to express 
an emotion of the narrator. 

2. Hail, Columbia, Happy land ! 

Parsing. Happy land! is & phrase Exclamation; because, etc. 

3. " Heaven save your Majesty !" " God bless the Queen !" 
is frequently repeated, when Victoria appears in public. 

Parsing. Heaven save your Majesty I is a clause Exclamation ; be- 
cause, etc. 

4. Hear, land of cakes, and brother Scots ; from Maiden 
Kirk to Johnnie Groat's. 

Parsing. Hear, land of cakes, etc., is a sentence Exclamation ; be- 
cause, etc. 

Note I. An Exclamation, which occurs between the parts of a 
Bentence, is sometimes called an Interjection. 

Note II. An Exclamation, which does not express a distinct ide^ 
is sometimes called an Ejaculation. 

5. Oh ! Oh ! So you have como at last 



334 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV 

Note III. As Interjections, the word, Oh, is used alone or by itself, 
as, Oh 1 Ah I Alas I j while, the word, 0, is used as if an adjunct of 
some word or phrase ; Thou Eternal One ! 

2. Second, the Classification. Exclamations 
are divided into four kinds ; namely, Exelamative Words, 
Exelamative Phrases, Exelamative Clauses, and Exelama- 
tive Sentences, 

6. Exelamative Words. "Goodl" say you? "Good!" 
say I; " Goodl" says every one* 

7. Exelamative Phrases. Ha, ha, ha ; he, he, he. A good 
joke ! A capital joke I 

8. Exelamative Clauses. Hark ! they whisper, angels say, 
" Sister Spirit I come away I" 

9. Halloo, here ! Is any hody awake within ? 

10. Whoa, hoys! Steady, boys! Gently now, gently I 

1 1 . If they shall say, Lo, here ! or, Lo, there ! 

12. Ha, ha, ha; he, he, he. A good joke ! Capital, cap- 
ital! 

13. 'Twas strange! 'Twas passing strange! 'Twas piti- 
ful ! 'Twas wondrous pitiful ! 

1 4. Exelamative Sentences. Lives there a heart with soul so 
dead, that never to itself hath said, rt This is my own, my 
native land!" 

15. " Shall mortal man be more just than God!" 

16. My friends, our country must be free ! 

17. The land is never lost, that has a son to right her, and 
here are troops of sons and loyal sons I 

18. Alas! my noble boy! that thou shouldst die. 

19. Gently! gently! Do not awake the monster I ' 

20. I am coming ! I am coming ! 
Hark ! the ffttle bee is humming ; 
See I the lark is soaring high 

In the bright and sunny sky, 
And the gnats are on the wing ; 
Little maiden, now is Spring 1 



EXCLAMATIONS CLASSIFICATION. 335 

21. Thou lovely and glorious Spring, 

Descending to us from the sky, 
I praise thee for coming to bring 
Such beautiful things to my eye ! 

22. Fill it up ! Ashes to ashes, and dust to dust. 

23. Oh, sweet the jessamine's buds of snow, 

In mornings soft with May ! 
Oh, silver clear the waves that flow, 
Reflecting heaven, away ! 

24. Is the enemy marching to battle ! Rise ! Rise I 
For the foe is near ! Stay not to sharpen your 
"Weapons, or the town will strike at last, 
When, from dreams of coming battle, you may 

Wake to find it past ! 

25. Get thee back, Sorrow ! Get thee back ! 

26. "Nay," he shouted, "Our country forever!" 

27. When he died, he was praying for you ! 

28. Forward, the Light Brigade ! Charge for the guns I 

29. My blood grows chilly, and I freeze with horror! 

30. By heaven ! cried Francis, rightly done ! 

31. The voice of prayer in the world of bliss I 

32. Behold how good a thing it is, 

And how becoming well, 
Together such as brethren are 
In unity to dwell I 



336 



GRAMMAR. 



[CHAP. IV. 



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W 



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£ Ja 5 

£ £ o 



916 no 



i 

3 



1 1 

1 1 



1 1 



5 3 

s 7 



8 3 



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at 



CLASSIFICATION BY USB. 337 



Grammatical Classification. 

1. The same word may be used in several different 

offices; but its classification must, in every instance, 
depend on its use. 

This proposition is a repetition of what has already been stated ; but 
its importance seems to justify us in calling special attention to it; the 
more so, because our elementary works on language contain so many 
expressions directly calculated to beget the idea, that certain words are, 
. in themselves, certain parts of speech. So far, we have endeavored not 
only to avoid such expressions, but to guard the learner against the in- 
ception of an idea so erroneous. To enforce the importance of classi- 
fying each word according to its use, the following familiar sentences 
are given. 

1. Painters paint buildings with paint, which they cany in 
paint-pots, and apply with paint-brushes. 

2. The dock-masters dock the wages of the laborers, who 
come to work on the dock after a certain time. 

3. Mr. Wells informs me, that all the wells in his vicinity 
are well filled with water ; and that all his friends are well. 

4. In the last example, with is a preposition ; what is it 
in this example ? 

5. Did you find with in the list of prepositions ? 

6. But is often used as a conjunction ; what is it here ? 

7. I, thou, he, she, and it are often used as pronouns. 

8. Do not thee and thou me ; I am no friend of thine. 

9. Parse did find in the analysis given above, and also 
as it is used here. 

10. In the last example, here is an adverb. 

11. In the tenth example, adverb is a common noun. 

12. "And "is a Copulative Conjunction. "Are" is an 
irregular intransitive simple Verb. " " is an Exclamation, 
w I n is not a Pronoun in this sentence. 

15 



338 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

13. The woman said, that that that, that that man 
parsed, was not that that, that that lady asked him to parse. 
14. In the last example, him is a primitive pronoun; 
what is it in this, and what is its case ? 

15. Henry leaves the leaves of his fruit-trees lying in the 
walk. 

1 6. Henry, in the last example, is a proper noun ; what is 
it in this ? 

17. What a queer thing parsing is ! If I call with a prepo- 
sition, I make it a noun ; if I call it a pronoun, it becomes a 
eommon noun ; if I say, " them is a pronoun, third, plural, 
and objective," I make them a common noun, neuter, third, 
singular, and in the nominative ! 



Terms commonly used. 

2. The Secondary Clauses of Compound Sentences 
are sometimes named according to the grammatical 
character of the words, by which the relations of these 
Secondary clauses are shown. 

First. The Vocative Clause, which is introduced by the name of the 
person, or object addressed. 

1. " O, Genius of Art, fill us with the inspiration of a still 
higher, and a more spiritual beauty ! 

Second. The Appositional Clause, which contains a noun in apposi- 
tion with a noun in the other clause. 

2. Pythagoras, an ancient philosopher, made many dis- 
coveries in geometry and astronomy. 

3. He was employed as Secretary of the Board of Trade. 

Third. The Casual Clause, which tells the cause, or object, for 
which an action is done. 

4. Congress assembled to devise the means for raising a 
revenue. 

Fourth. The Participial Clause, which is introduced by a participle. 

5. The Russians, discovering our approach, fled hastily. 



PHRASES. 339 

6. She, loved by all, loved all in return. 

Fifth. The Hypothetical , or Subjunctive Clause, which is introduced 
by a Limiting Connective, and hence, is in the Subjunctive. 

/. If I be Hodge, I have lost a horse ; but, if I be not 
Hodge, I have found a good halter. 

8. When Spring comes, the trees take their clothing from 
their trunks. 

Sixth. The Relative Clause, which is introduced by a designating 
adjective, used relatively. 

9. This is an occasion, which is long to be remembered by 
all now present. 

3. Phrases are divided and named according to tho 
words, by which their Logical and Rhetorical Charac- 
ters are shown. 

First. The Prepositional Phrase, which includes the preposition and 
its second object. 

1. The vine hangs on the tree, which is in the garden. 

2. The next instant, all was hushed. 

3. Some love labor ; others, on the contrary, abhor it. 

4. The planet, Venus, may be known by its brightness, aud 
by. its locality. 

5. On the other hand, this proposal did not suit both 
parties. 

Second. The Adverbial Phrase, which is introduced by an adverb. 

6. The skies were transparently Hue. 

7. They live away over the hills. 

8. We were at the place punctually. 

a. Sometimes these are parsed as Adverbial Phrases, When the stu- 
dent is familiar with the use of each word in the Phrase, this manner of 
disposing of these constructions will answer very well. 

Third. The Adjective Phrase, which is introduced by an adjective. 
9. Conscious of rectitude, he maintains his principles. 



310 



GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV, 



OETHOEPY AND OKTHOGKAPHY. 

. 1. The Second Part of Grammar includes the^ 
kindred subjects, Orthoepy, and' Orthography. 

Orthoepy. 



3. The term, Orthoepy, is applied to the science and art 
of speaking or pronouncing words correctly. 

Note I. English Orthoepy includes those sounds which are used 
in speaking or pronouncing English words. It does not include those 
sounds which, in speaking or in reading, form a part of Mood Language. 
Note II. Orthoepy includes the correct speaking or pronunciation 
of words only ; while, Reading or Elocution includes the correct read- 
ing and speaking of phrases, sentences, paragraphs, chapters, etc. 

3. Nomenclature. The Names or Terms, used 
in Orthoepy, are Organs of Voice, Organs of Speech, 
Phonic Elements of Words, Enunciation, Articulation, 
Phonic Syllable, and Oral Spelling. 

The Organs of Voice. 

4b • The Organs of Voice consist of certain muscles, 
cartilages^ and their appendages, called the Larynx. They are 
situated in the upper part of the windpipe. They are sometimes 
called the Vocal Organs. (See Physiology.) 

Note III. By the aid of an instrument, called the Laryngyscope, or 
"Viewer of the Larynx," the Yocal Organs and then uses are much 
better understood now than heretofore. In consequence of its di*> 



ORTHOEPY. 341 

closures, several former theories in regard to sounds have been found 
to be erroneous ; hence, new and better ones have lately been substi- 
tuted. 

The Organs of Speech. 

The Organs of Speech are the lips, teeth, tongu* 
palate, and nasal ducts. (See Physiology.) 

1. The Organs of Speech are the Lips or the 

Labial 1 Organs, the Teeth or the DentaT Organs, the 

Tongue or the Lingual 3 Organ, the Palate or the Guttural 

Organ, and the Nasal 6 Ducts 6 , or the Nasal Organs. 

(See Physiology.) 

Note IV. Many of the brutes, in common with mankind, have Or- 
gans of Voice ; while, none of them have complete Organs of Speech. 
Hence mankind is distinguished from brutekind rather by the gift or 
power of Speech than by the gift or power of Voice. 

3. The Organs of Voice and of Speech are "used 
to change the air, passing over them from the lungs, 
into sounds, and, also, to modify these sounds. 

Plwnic Elements of Words. 

3. The Phonic Elements of Words are the sounds or 
tones produced by breath, from the lungs, passing across the 
organs of voice and of speech. 

4. The Phonic Elements of English words are 

about forty in number ; that is, all the words of the 

English language may be spoken by the use of about 

forty different Sounds or Tones. 

Note V. Some authors give thirty-nine, some forty, some forty- 
one, and some more, as the Elementary Sounds of the English language. 

■ 1 ■ m 

1 Labial. (i)al, ; lab, lip. See laugh. | 

3 Dental, al. ; dent, tooth. 

8 Lingual, al, ; lingn — langu, tongue. 

• Guttural, al, ; guttur. throat 

• Nasal, al, ; nas< nose. 

• Duct, t, ; due, guide, lead. 



34:2 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV 

Note VI. Languages differ in the number of their Phonic Ebments. 
The greater portion of these Elements is the same in all languages, and 
the differences exist in the few Elements which are used in one lan- 
guage and are not used in the other languages ; as, the English th, not 
found in the French, or German. 



Enivnciation. 

5. Enunciation is a term applied to that part of 
Orthoepy which includes the proper production and utterance of 
sound. 

Articulation. 

■ 
©. Articulation is a term applied to that part of Or- 
thoepy which includes the proper joining of sounds. 

Note YII. The terms, Enunciation, Articulation, are not synony- 
mous. Sounds may be improperly enunciated, and yet be properly 
articulated ; on the other hand, they may be properly enunciated, while 
they are improperly articulated. 

Phonic Syllables. 

7 . A Phonic Syllable is one or more phonic elements 
uttered by a single impulse of the voice, and used as an immediate 
element in the formation of words. 

Oral Spelling. 



8. Oral Spelling, properly consists in giving the 
phonic elements of a vjord. This term is also applied to the act 
of naming the letters of a word. (See Chap. III., Words.) 



ORTHOEPY. 34:3 

9. Classifications. The Phonic Elements of 
words may be classified in five ways ; first, according to 
the organs by which they are made and modified; second, 
according to quantity, or rhythm; third, according to 
pitch or key ; fourth, according to force or dynamics ; 
and fifth, according to quality. 

According to the organs by which they are made 
and modified, Phonic Elements of words are divided 
into three classes; Vocals, Sub-vocals, and Ab-vocals or 
Speech Elements. 

1 . Vocal Sounds are those which are made and modi- 
fied, bg the organs of voice only. 

Note VIII. Two Vocals combined are called a double-vocal, a 
Diphthong or By phonic. 

Note IX. The second of two Vocals, coming together, is said to 
be a Pure Vocal or is said to have its Pure Sound. 

2. Sub-Vocal Sounds are those which are made by the 
organs of voice and modified by the organs of speech. They are 
sometimes called Consonants. 

3. Sub-vocal Sounds, according to the organs of 
speech by which they are modified, are divided into six 
kinds ; namely, Labial, Lahio-Dental, Dental, Lingual, 
Palatal or Guttural, and Nasal. 

<4. Labial Sounds are sounds modified* by the lips ; 
Labio -Dental, those modified by the lower lip and the upper 
teeth ; Dental, those modified by the teeth ; Lingual, those ** 
modified by the tongue ; Palatal or Guttural, those modi- 
fied by the throat or palate ; Nasal, those modified by the nasal 
ducts. 

5. Ab-vocal or Speech Elements are those sounds 
which are made and modified by the organs of speech only. 



344 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

G. According to quantity or rhythm, Sounds are 
Short, and Long. 

T. A Short Sound is one produced in the shortest time 
in which that sound can he perfectly moAe. 

8. A Long Sound is one requiring a longer time for its 
production than a short sound. 

Note X. Some describe a Long Sound as having twice the length 
of a Short Sound. It may be less than twice, twice, or more than twice 
the shorter Sound. 

9. According to pitch or key. Sounds are High, 
Low, and Intermediate. 

10. According to force or dynamics, Sounds are 
Faint or Weak, and Strong or Loud. 

, 11. According to quality, Sounds are Smooth, 
Bough, Pure, Mixed, etc. 

Note XI. The remaining portion of the science of Orthoepy corre- 
sponds to certain portions of the science of Orthography ; hence, it will 
be found under the compound term, Orthoepy and Orthography. 

Orthography. 



12. The term, Orthography, is applied to that part of 
grammar which includes the- science and art of writing, or of 
printing the elements of a word, correctly. 

13. Nomenclature. The Names or Terms, be- 
longing to Orthography, are Letters, Alphabet, Idea- 
graphic, Phonographic, Graphic Syllable, and Literal or 
Gh-aphic Spelling. 

14t. A Letter is a character, used as one of the ultimate 
elements of a written, or of a printed word. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 345 

Note I The Letters of a word are sometimes called its Literal 
Elements. The term, Letter, is sometimes expressed by the word, 
grain, a contraction of the Greek word, gramma, meaning a latter; 
hence, our English word, grammar. 

Alphabet. 

15. The term, Alphabet, is applied to a table or arrange 
merit of the letters, as literal or graphic elements of words. 

Alphabets. 



ENGLISH. 


LATIN. 




GREEK. 


A, a 


A, 


a 


A, 


a, Alpha 


B, b 


B, 


b 


B, 


j3, Beta . 


C, c 


c, 


c 


r, 


y, Gamma 


D, d 


D, 


d 


A, 


(5, Delta 


E, e 


E, 


e 


E, 


e, Epsllon 


F, f 


F, 


f 


z, 


£ Zeta 


G, S 


6, 


g 


H, 


rj., Eta 


H, h 


H, 


h 


e, 


#, 0, Theta 


I, i 


I, 


i 


I, 


L, Iota. 


J, j 


J, 


J 


K, 


re, Kappa 


K, k 


K, 


k 


A, 


A, Lambda 


L, 1 


h 


1 


M, 


fi, Mu 


M, m 


M, 


m 


N, 


v, Nu 


N, n 


N, 


n 


**% 


& -z* 


0, o 


o, 





0, 


o, Omicron, 


P, P 


P, 


P 


n, 


it, Pi 


Q, q 


Q, 


q 


*, 


p, Rho 


R, r 


B, 


r 


2, 


a, $ , Sigma 


S, 3 


s, 


s 


T, 


r, Taw 


T, t 


T, 


t 


T, 


v, Upsllon 


U, u 


u, 


n 


*, 


</>, PA* 


V, v 


v, 


V 


x, 


*, cw 


W,-w 


x, 


X 


*i 


i/>, Ps* 


X, x 


Y, 


y 


0, 


a), Omega 


Y, y 


z, 


z 






Z, z 











346 GRAMMAR. fcHAP. IV. 

Note II. The Alphabets of the different languages vary in the 
number of letters which they contain. In the Alphabet of the English 
language there are 26, in the Latin, 25, in the Greek, French, Italian, 
Spanish, 24, Abyssinian, 202, and the Brahmanic, 240. 

16. Since, in the English. Language, there are 
about forty sounds, and only twenty-six letters, some 
letters must represent more than one sound, or else 
some sounds must be represented by a combination of 
these letters, both of which, in practice, are done. 

Note III. A new Alphabet, called the Phonetic Alphabet, is now 
used, in which, the number of letters is equal to the number of sounds 
in the English language. These letters are so simple in their forms, 
that a speech may be written as rapidly by the narratee as it is uttered 
by fche speaker, a feat which has never yet been performed by words 
written in the common Alphabet. 

By using the Phonetic Alphabet, also, a speech may be copied and 
then be read by a copyist, who does not know the meaning of a single 
word, used by the speaker. A few years since, in New York City, a 
boy reported a speech in the Russian language, and then read it" to the 
gratification of several Russians, while the boy himself did not under- 
stand a single word of the speech. The mastery of this Alphabet and 
its familiar use, cannot be too highly commended to students. 

Ideagraphic, 



17. Ideagraphic is a term applied to a picture, a draw- 
ing % or a delineation, and to any character or mark, which ex- 
presses an idea to the sense of sight. 

Thus, in geography, some ideas are expressed by pictures, some by 
drawings or delineations called maps, charts, diagrams, etc. ; some by 
arbitrary characters, as squares, triangles, etc., denoting cities, towns, 
etc., and their populations; some by lines, or marks to denote boundary 
lines, roads, canals, etc., and some by printed words, or, asfthey may 
be called for convenience, Graphic words. The Arabic Figures are 
Ideagraphs. 

Note IV. Several Eastern languages, as the Siamese, Chinese, 
Japanese, etc., are rather Ideagraphic than Phonographic ; hence, it 
happens that, while the Chinese and Japanese read each other's wrik 



PHONOGRAPHIC. 



347 



ings, they can not understand each other's speech ; but this will be 
readily understood by recollecting that the same is true of an English- 
man and a Frenchman in regard to Mathematical signs or characters. 

Phonographic. 

18. Phonographic is a term applied to a character uzzd 
as the sign of a sound only. 

Thus, the letters of the English alphabet, when used separately, aro 
phonographs. A, i, and o, when used as words, are both Ideagraphs 
and Phonographs. 

Note V. The North American Indians used rude pictures to record 
events.. They were also used by the ancient Egyptian priests, and 
hence were called " hieroglyphics " or priests' writing. These were 
sometimes used as signs of sounds. It is probable that pictures were 
first used, and that Ideagraphs, and Phonographs or Alphabets are 
modifications of these pictures. (See G-iiddon's 20 years in Egypt.) 

1.0. A Graphic Syllable is one or more letters used as an 
immediate element of a word. 

The Letters, forming a Syllable, are divided 
into two kinds ; namely, Phonic Letters, and Aphonic or 
Silent Letters. 

1 . The Phonic Letters of a syllable are those which ex- 
press sounds. 

2. The Aphonic or Silp;nt Letters of a syllable are 
those which do not express sounds. 

3. Aphonic or Silent Letters are of two kinds ; 
namely, Quantitative, and Mute. 

4L A Quantitative Silent Letter is a vowel which 
modifies the quantity of another vowel. 

Thus, the letter e, in the words grate, great, is quantitative ; because, 
it is used to give the long sound to the vowel, a, which is short in the 
word, grat. In the words, heat, read, etc., a is the quantitative vowel; 
in the words, gait, raid, etc., i is the quantitative vowel. 

5. A Mute Silent Letter is one which neither expresses a 
sound, nor a modification of a sound. 



348 GRAMMAB. [CHAP. IV 

Note YI. Originally, these Silent Letters expressed sounds. These 
sounds, in that process of the contraction of words, to which we have 
several times referred, have been dropped in speaking, while they have 
been retained in writing the word. Common sense requires that the 
mute silent letters should be entirely dropped. 

6. The Quantity of a Graphic Syllable is the 
same as that of its vowel element ; hence, in speaking 
and in singing, the vowel sound only should be used 
to lengthen, or to shorten the syllable. 

Rules for the Quantity of Syllables. 

Tf. General Rule. Assume that the Vowel of every 
syllable is short, and that, when lengthened, it must be in accord- 
ance with the following Special Rules, to which there are many 
exceptions. 

8. Rule L Digraphs, Trigraphs, etc., and vowels 
affected by quantitative vowels, must be long ; few exceptions. 

As, oi in boil ; ou in ftmnd ; ea in great ,• ea in heat, etc. 
A in hat is short; a in hate is long; because, it is affected by the 
quantitative vowel, e; so e in mete ; i in kite ; o in note ; u in flwte. 

0. Rule II. A vowel, before a double consonant, or 
before two, or more consonants, must be long by its position ; 
many exceptions. 

Literal or Graphic Spelling. 

lO. Literal or Graphic Spelling is spelling by giving 
the letters forming the ultimate elements of a word, and should 
generally be done in writing. 

Note VII. In Oral Spelling, a word should be spelled phonically 
or by giving the sounds used in speaking it ; in Written Spelling, a 
word should be spelled literally or by the letters used in writing it. 

The practice of naming the letters, in Oral Spelling, should be sel- 
dom used, and even then, with extreme caution, on account of its 
tendency to hinder the student from acquiring habits of correct pro- 
nunciation. 

1. Classification. The Literal Elements of 
words may be classified in four ways ; first, according 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 349 

to importance ; second, according to form ; third, accord- 
ing to size ; and fourth, according to sound. 

2. According to importance, Letters are divided 
into Large Capitals, Small Capitals, and Small or Body 
Letters. 

Large Capital Letters. 

3. A Large Capital Letter or a Capital Letteb, cu 
it is usually called, is of the largest letters of its kind. 

Rules for the Use of Capital Letters. 

4t. Rule I. A Capital Letter must he placed at the 
beginning of a word used as an appellation of the Deity, a 
proper noun, a proper adjective, a titular noun, the first word of 
a period, the first word of each line of poetry, and the first word 
of a full quotation. 

Examples. 

1. A word used as an appellation of the Deity. From all 
creatures, Heaven hides the Book of Fate. Hallowed be 
Thy name. Man should worship that Supreme Being by 
which he has been created. 

2. A proper noun. Henry crossed the Atlantic Ocean in 
the good ship, Neptune. In London, he saw the Parliament 
House, and the Royal Exchange. 

3. A proper adjective. The Lord Mayor's Day is a great 
day with the London people. 

4. A titular noun. The General sent his Adjutant to order 
the Surgeon to take care of the wounded Lieutenant. The 
President, the Vice-President, and the Secretary of State were 
present. 

5. The first word of a period. The President is coming. 
Is the President coming? Where is your brother? See 
yonder ^o use. 



350 GRAMMAE. [CHAP. IY 

6. The first word of every line of poetry. 

Three things bear mighty sway with m-en ; 
=== The Sword, the Sceptre, and the Pen. =-=r 

He, who the first of these can wield, 
In honor's race, shall win the field. 

7. The first word of a full quotation. The fool hath said in 
his heart, " There is no God." 

5. Rule II. A Capital Letter must he used to express 
the word, I, when used as a pronoun ; aud the word, 0, when 
used as an- exclamation. 

8. The ivord, I, used as a pronoun. Behold, I come quickly. 
Shall I come now ? 

9. The word, 0, used as an exclamation. Hear, ! ye 
men, and give heed, O ! ye sons of men. 

G. Rule III. Capital Letters must be used in the titles 
of boohs, and of chapters, and sometimes, of sections. Generally, 
Capital Letters may be used in such words as are very strongly 
emphatic. 

Small Capital Letters. 

7. Small Capital Letters are letters, which, in size, 
are between capitals and small or tody letters. 

8. Small Capital Letters are tised in sub-headings 
of chapters, headings of sections, etc. They are some- 
times used to denote peculiar emphasis. (See the 
Definitions of this Book.) 

Small or Body Letters. 

©. Small or Body Letters are the smallest letters of 
the kind or class to ivhich they belong. They constitute the 
greatest portion of the letters used in written or in printed words. 

10. According to form, Letters are divided into 
Plain or Common, and Ornamental Letters. 

11. Plain or Common Letters are divided into 
Roman, Italic, and Script Letters. 



ORNAMENTAL LETTERS. 351 

Examples. 

1. Roman. BOOKS, books, books. 

2. Italic. BOOKS, hooks. 

3. Script. ^(9&&?^. AhM. 

12. Ornamental Letters are of many kinds, some 
of which are known as ; — 

Runic. Victoria Text. Ornamented. 

NEW YORK. J?enn$ulvama. MISS0UBI. 

Tuscan. G-othic Heavy. Gothic Light. 

JSBB&Ai&A. TEXAS. KENTUCKY. 

Full Face. Titling. Antique. 

ONTARIO. SOUTH CAROLINA. TENNESSEE. 

Shaded. Expanded. Alexandrian. 

WDSe®N30N. XISIJDXJ^ISTJ^^ JTorth Parolina. 

13. According to size, Letters are divided into 
Great Primer, English, Pica, Small Pica, Long Primer, 
Bourgeois, Brevier, Minion, Nonpareil, Agate, Pearl, etc. 

Great Primer. 

i. When, in the course of human 

English. 

2. When, in the course of human events, 

Pica. 

3. When, in the course of human events, it 

_^^ Small Pica. 

4. When, in the course of human events, it becomes 

Long Primer. 

5. When, in the course of human events, it becomes 

Bourgeois. 

6. When, in the course of human events, it becomes neces- 

Brevier. 

7. When, in the course of human- events, it becomes necessary for 

Minion. 

8. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 

Nonpariel. 

9. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 

Agate. 
10. When, in the coarse of human events, it becomes necessary for one people 

Pearl. 
1 *• When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dlasolr* 



352 GKAMMAB. [CHAP. IV 

14. According to sound, Letters are divided into 
three kinds ; Vowels, Suh-vowels, and A b-vowel or Speech 
Letters. 

15 A Vowel is a letter, which expresses or names a vocal 
sound. 

16. The Vowel Letters of the English language 
suce Jive in number; namely, a, e, i, o, u. 

17. According to the sounds which they express, 
Vowels are Long, Short, and Doubtful 

1 8 . A Long Vowel is one ivhich expresses or names a 
long sound. Its sign is the Macron. (See Punctuation.) 

19. A Short Vowel is one which expresses or names a 
short sound. Its sign is the Breve. 

20. A Doubtful Vowel is one which expresses or names 
either a short, or a long sound. Its sign is the Doubtful Mark. 

Note VIII. Students should study the signs for different vowel 
sounds, as given in the Standard Dictionaries. 

21. The English Vowel Letters are generally sup- 
posed to represent about fifteen vocal elements of Eng- 
lish words ; as, in the following ; — 

Table of Vowels. 

The Vowel, a has four sounds ; called, the First or Long sound, as 
in fate ; the Second or Short sound, as in fat ; the Third or Italian 
sound, as in far ; and the Fourth or Broad sound, as in fall. 

The Vowel, e, has two sounds ; called, the First or Long sound, as 
id me; and the Second or Short sound, as in met. 

The Vowel, i, has two sounds ; called, the First or Long sound, a3 
in pine ; and the Second or Short sound, as in pin. 

The Vowel, o, has four sounds'; called, First or Long sound, as in 
no ; the Second or Short sound, as in n5t ; the Third or Open sound, as 
in nor; and the Fourth or Broad sound, as in move. 

The Vowel, u. has three sounds ; called, the First or Long sound, as 
in tube ; the Second or Short sound, as in tub ; the Third or Open 
sound, as in full. 

Note IX. The First or Long sound of a Vowel is used as the name 
of that vowel ; thus, we say the Vowel letter, c, etc, ; 



vowels. 353 

Note X. Two Vowels, used together, are called a Diphthong or Di 
graph. When they express a double vocal sound, they are called a 
Proper Diphthong ; when they express a single vocal sound, they are 
called au Improper Diphthong ; as, oi in boil, a proper Diphthong ; ea 
in gr^at, an improper Diphthong. In like manner, three Vowels, used 
together, are called a Triphthong or Trigraph ; as eau in beauty, an im- 
proper Triphthong. 

32. A Sub-Vowel expresses a sub-vocal element 
25. The Sub- vowel Letters are seventeen in num- 
ber ; namely, b, c d,f, g, j) k, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w. 

Note XI. The Sub-vowel, C, is sometimes used for k; as, in the 
word, cage ; when so used, it is called G hard. G is sometimes used 
for 5 ; as, in the word, efface ; when so used, it is called G soft. G is 
sometimes used for z ; as, in the word, sacrifice, pronounced sacrifize. 
G has no peculiar sound, except when taken with the letter h ; as, in 
the word, church. That is ; — 

G-enerally, the Sub-vowel, C, before the vowels, a, o, u, has its hard 
sound or k; before the vowels, e, i, it has its soft sound or s; before the 
letter, h, it has its peculiar sound or ch. 

The Sub-vowel Letter, G, likewise has its own peculiar sound; as, 
in the word, gag ; when so used, it is called G hard, G is sometimes 
used for the letter, j ; as, in the word, germ ; when so used, it is called 
Gsoft That is;— 

Generally, the Sub-vowel Letter, G, before the vowels a, o, u, has 
its hard or peculiar sound ; before the vowels, e, i, it has its soft sound 
or j. To this statement, there are many exceptions. 

The Sub-vowels, X, Z, are double letters ; X being equal to ks ; as, 
j v , the word, exist = eksist; and, sometimes, being equal to the letter, Z; 
us, the first x in the word, Xerxes. Z being equal to ds ; as, in the word, 
zany = dsany. 

Note XII. Sometimes, one letter is substituted for another ; in such 
cases, the substitute should be regarded as the letter, for which it is 
substituted; as, Y for I in fly; I for Fin billion; W for U in new; 
U for W in language. 

24L. Ab-vowel or Speech Letters are those which ex- 
press ab-vocal or speech sounds. 

25. The Ab-vowel or Speech Letters are three in 
number ; namely, c in ch 1 j, and s. 

Note XIII. The remaining portion of the science of Orthography 
is similar to a certain portion of the science of Orthoepy ; hence, it is 
given under the compound term, Orthoepy and Orthography. 



354 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IV. 

Examples to be corrected and explained by the pupils. 

1. having woncc started The giblets was determined that no thing 
should Stop them in there carear until they had ran there ful Coarse 
evere Taylor, evere Shoemaker everea Kotchmaker And everigh dan- 
sing Master in Ye \ye old form for the] sitty ware Enlisting in thare ser 
vices. 

Pupil. "Having begins the period; hence, it should begin with a capital. 
Wonce is intended for once, from which it is formed by prefixing w, or by Prosthe- 
sis," &c. 

2. my name is norval on the grampian hills my father feeds his flock 
a rural swain and i his Only son 

3. Heard Ye. Those Loud Contending Waves That Shook ce- 
cropia. 

4. For the strengthe off ye hills We bless the our god 

5. Our love to god ward, is not to be compared with his to us ward. 

6. The persons inside the coach were Mr Miller a clergyman his son 
a lawyer Mr Angelo a foreigner his lady and a little child 

This may be made into several different sentences both as to the number, pro- 
fessions, and the relations of those in the coach, by varying the punctuation. 

7. 'Tis mine to teach th' inactive hand to reap 
kind natures Bounties, o'er the globe diffused, — 

8. The aerial pencil forms the scene anew. 

9. Withouten trump was proclamation made. 

10. The law i gave to nature him forbids. 

11. Behold I lay in Zion a stumbling-stone and rock of ©ffeoce. 

12. Let us instant go o'erturn his palaces. 

13. Every good man's sons is blest by what his father has done. 

14. I done what you told me with them things. You haint though! 

15. This book is Neither yours or his ? 

16. I am more pleased with the baconian then with the aristotelian 
system of philosophy. Althou I learnt both. 

17. " Yees speaks hinglish as well as hi do" 

18. What clatter, rattle, whizzing, buzzing, screaking, banging 

lb. This is the thing I told him of which he did not know what to 
do with such a dilemma he had got into 

20. We have apples and potatoes and turnips and onions or beans 
or else peas 

21. I saw the moon leading its starry host in the sky. 

22. The sun in its meridian glory illumes the day. 

23. Each one of the jury receive their pay. 

24. Many a man send letters home when absent. 

25. Mathematics are the science of quantity. 

26. Reflect on every word, you see, read, hear, or speak ; its birth 
derivation, and history* This will insure you a liberal education* 



ORTHOEPY AND ORTHOGRAPHY. 355 



Orthoepy and Orthography. 

26. T/ie Compound term, Orthoepy and Orthography, 

is a name given to that part of Grammar \ which includes ; first, 
the Syllabication of Words ; second, the Classification of Words 
according to their Syllabication ; third, the Classification of Words 
according to their Formation ; and fourth, the Classification of 
Words according to their Derivation. 

Syllabication of Words. 

27. First. Syllabication is a term applied to the 

science and art of separating a word into its syllables. 

Rules for Syllabication. 

28. Rule I. A word must be separated into as mang syU 

tables as it has distinct vocal sounds. 

Examples. 

1. Con-stan-ti-no-ple ; con-ven-ience. 

In the word, convenience, i is used for y, and the final e is quantita- 
tive ; hence, there are three distinct vocal sounds, and three syllables. 

2 A-e-ri-al ; beau-ty; rejoice; re-sound. 

29. Rule II. A consonant, between two vowels of a root, 
must be taken with the former vowel, if the vowel be short ; but, 
must not be taken with the former vowel, if the vowel be long. 

3. Former Vowel Short. Hon-or; min-us ; di-min-ish; min- 
u-end; min-er-al; hom-i-cide. 

4. Former Vowel Long. No-ta-ble ; re-verse ; pre-ju-di- 
cial. 

Note I. This Rule prevails not only in the English, but also in the 
Latin Language ; although, by many students of the latter language, 
it is entirely disregarded. Thus, hom-o is erroneously syllabified ho- 
mo, although all English words on the same root are syllabified ac- 
irwhng to Rule IT.; as. hom-i-cide, etc. 



356 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IT. 

30. Eule III. If a prefix, or a suffix, contain a vowel, it 

must he syllabified by itself, 

5. Pre-exist; un-con-troll-a-ble ; in-con-ven-ient-ly. 

3 1 . Rule I Y. A letter of euphony must be syllabified by 
itself or with its preceding consonant 

6. Ac-cept-(a)-bil-(i)-ty ; con-stel-la-tion ; re-press-i-ble. 

33. Rule V. The immediate elements of a compound 
word must be syllabified separately. 

7. Nev-er, the, less; not, with, stand -ing. 

Numbering and Naming Syllables. 

33. The Syllables of words are numbered from trie 
left to the right ; as, First Syllable, Second Syllable, 
Third Syllable, etc. They are named from the right to 
the left ; the last syllable is called the Ultimate Syl- 
lable ; the next to the last or the second from the right 
is called the Penultimate or Penult ; the third from the 
right or the Syllable before the Penult is called the 
Antepenult; the fourth from the right or the Syllable 
before the Antepenult is called the Preantepenult ; x and 
so on, alternating ante, and pre ; as, Preantepreante, etc. 

8. UnMn 2 -tel s 4i 4 -gi B -bil 6 -i 7 -ty. 8 

Ly is the ultimate Syllable ; i, the penult ; Ml, the antepenult ; gi, the 
preante penult ; li, the ante preante penult, eta 

Classification of Words according to their Syllabication. 

34. Second. According to then 1 Syllabication, 
Words are divided into Monosyllable, and Polysyllable. 

33. A Monosyllable Word is one having o-ne syllable. 

3©. A Polysyllable Word is one having two or more 
syllables. 

1 Frkantepenult «= Pre antepenult] mate, e, ; (a)t, ; wi, many; uli, 

the last ; ante -=pre before. 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 357 

37. Polysyllable Words are divided into the 
Dissyllabic, or two syllables ; Trisyllabic, or three sylla- 
bles ; Tetrasyllable, or four syllables ; Pentasyllabic, or 
five syllables ; Hexasyllabic, or six syllables ; Hepta- 
syllabic, or seven syllables ; Octasyllabic, or eight sylla- 
bles ; Novisyllabic, or nine syllables ; etc. 

Classification of Words according to their Formation. 

38. Third. According to their formation, Words 
are divided into Simple, and Compound. 

39. A Simple Word is one whose immediate elements are 

syllables. 

Thus ; the, never, less ; with, not, standing ; etc. 

40. A Compound Word is one whose immediate elements 
are words. 

Thus ; nevertheless, notwithstanding ; etc. 

Classification of Words according to their Derivation. 

41. Fourth. According to their derivation, Words 
are Primitive, or Derivative. 

4:3. A Primitive Word is a simple word, without prefix, 
or suffix. 

As, join, boy, song, cruel, vision, verse. 

43. A Derivative Word is one which is formed by join- 
ing prefixes, or suffixes, or both to a primitive word. 

As, rejoin, unjoin, boyish, songless, cruelly, revision, visionary, irre- 
versibility. 

Note II. Many English Primitive or Root words were also used as 
Root or Primitive Words in other languages, as the Greek, Latin, etc. ; 
hence, when these Primitive or Root words, and words derived from 
them, occur in the English, they are said to be derived from the Greek, 
Latin, etc. See Webster's Dictionary. 



358 GRAMMAR. [CHAP. IY. 

44. A Derivative Word mr»y be regarded as an 
ancient phrase, or sentence, which, by long and familiar 
use, has been condensed into what appears to be a single 
word. See Contractions of Sentences. 

45. Generally, the Eoot or Basis of a Derivative 
word may be regarded as a principal word of a Phrase, 
or of a sentence; the suffix, as an adjunct of the Eoot 
or Primitive word ; and the prefix, as a relator. This 
is especially true, when the Derivative word is an old 
word. 

Note III. Anciently, phrases and sentences were written from the 
right to the left ; hence, words formed by contracting these phrases, or 
sentences, may be most readily analyzed from the right to the left ; 
while, words, formed by contracting phrases and sentences written from 
the left to the right, may be more readily analyzed from the left to the 
right ; and thus, the comparative ages of these words may be known. 

Note IV. In the following analyses, we speak of Saxon, Eoman, 
and Greek Roots, Suffixes, and Prefixes, rather because these expres- 
sions are in vogue, than because we have faith in the theorj^, that the 
English is merely derived from these languages. In this department 
of English Philology, there is a wide and almost nn explored held, 
offering many attractions and great rewards to the successful explorer. 

Examples. 

1. Addition, ion, science and art of; (i)t, that which 
is ; d, puts, joints ; ad, together. 

2. Nevermore, more, — ; ever, — ; n=ne, not. 

3. Fractional, al, belonging to; ion, state or conditio! 
of; t, that which ; frac, has been broken. 

4. Mixed, ed, condition of, state of; mix=zmisc, one kind 
scattered through another. 

Note T. Sometimes a word having an ancient origin, has subse« 
quent ? y received a prefix ; as, — 

5. Thing, Nothing. ing t condition of; th, [that which] 
fixed, put, placed; no, — . 



CHANGES IN FINAL LETTERS. 359 

46. Sometimes the final letters of the primitive or 
root words are changed for the sake of Euphony, or 
for the sake of agreeable sound, and ease of speaking. 

First Change. Final e is dropped when a suffix beginning 
with a vowel is added; as — 



love 


drive 


blue 


create 


globe 


ovable 


driver 


bluish 


creator 


globule. 



Exception. Generally, before the suffixes able and ous 9 
words ending in ge, retain the e ; those in ce, retain e before 
able, but change it into i before ous ; as — 

change outrage peace grace 

changea6fe outrageoas peaceaofe graciows. 

Second Change. Abridge, acknowledge, argue, awe, due, 
judge, lodge, and true, drop e before ful, ly, and sometimes 
before ment ; as — 

abridge awe due true judge 

abridgment aw/k/ duly txuly judgment. 

Third Change. Ie is changed into y before ing ; as — 

lie tie die underlie 

lying tying oVying underlying. 

Fourth Change. E, preceded by c, s, or t, aspirated, or by 
v, becomes i before a suffix beginning with o ; as — 

grace erase create behave 

gracious erasiou creation behavior. 

Fifth Change. T, not after a vowel in its own syllable, is 
usually changed into i ; sometimes into e ; as — 

party j°Uy comely hearty pity 

parties jolliness comeliness heartiness piteous. 

Exception First. Lay, say, and pay, change y into i; as — 

lay say pay 

laid said paid. 

Exception Second. Y before ing is never changed ; as — 
pity lay say pay 

pitying laying Buying payiwp\ 



360 GRAMMAK. [CHAP. IV. 

Sixth Change. A consonant, preceded by a single vowel, 

is doubled at the end of a monosylable, or at the end of 

any word accented on its final syllable; as — 

sad snap begin regret refer 

sadder snappish beginner regretting referring. 

Note. — Students should be examined frequently, both by Oral 
and by written Exercises, which may be prepared in a manner simi- 
lar to those used in " Preliminary Academic Examinations," under 
the direction of the Regents of the University of the State of New 
York. The following, used in 1870, may serve as an example : 

" PRELIMINARY ACADEMIC EXAMINATION." 

Grammar. 

Exercise : 

• 

(1.) K. Henry. w Therefore, my lords, omit no happy hour. 

(2.) That may give furtherance to our expedition : 

(3.) For we have now no thought in us but France, 

(4.) Save those to God, that run before our business. 

(5.) Therefore, let our proportions for these wars 

(6.) Be soon collected; and all things thought upon, 

(7.) That may, with reasonable swiftness, add 

(8.) More feathers to our wings ; for, God before, 

(9.) We'll chide this dauphin at his father's door. 

(10.) Therefore, let every man now task his thought, 

(11.) That this fair action may on foot be brought." 

{Shakespeare's King Henry V., end of Act 1.) 

1. Make a list of all the parts of speech (or classes of wards) repre- 
sen ted in the above excercise. 

2. Make a list of all the parts of speech (if any) not so repre- 
sented. 

Give the part of speech of each of the following words : 

3. "but," (3d line); " save" (4th line); "thought" (3d line) ; 
" thought " (6th line). 

4. " that " (2d, 4th, 7th and 11th lines, respectively). 

5. Make a list of all the modes represented in the exercise. 

6. Give an example, from the exercise, of a verb in each mode so 
represented. 

7. Parse " things " (6th line). 

8. Parse " before " (4th line). 

9. Parse " before " (8th line). 



ORAL AND WKITTEN EXERCISES. 361 

10. Parse " chide " (9tli line), giving principal pa/i^ts, voice (or 
form), mode, tense, person, number, subject, and rule of syntax. 

11. In what case is each proper noun in the exercise V 

12. To what does " those " (4th line) refer ? 

13. Parse ''furtherance '' (2d line). 

14. Parse " brought " (11th line), as required in Question 10. 

15. What is a sentence ? 

18. What are the essential parts, or elements, of sentences ? 

17. How are sentences classified in regard to form f 

18. Give an example of a sentence in each of the varieties of form 
mentioned in question 17. 

19. Decline each of the personal pronouns. 

20. Conjugate the verb be, in all the tenses, persons and numbers 
of the indicative mode. 

21. Conjugate the verb know, in all the tenses, persons and num- 
bers of the potential passive. 

22. What is Syntax ? 

23. Change the following sentence into the equivalent passive 
form : 

" Them that honor me, I will honor." 

24. Change into the equivalent active form : 

" He was admitted into this institution by some gentlemren who had been 
nis father's friends." 



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GRUTTENDEN'S ARITHMETICAL SERIES. 



No. I. YOUNG PUPIL'S ARITHMETIC. 

DESIGNED TO FOLLOW OBJECT LESSONS. 

RETAIL PHICE TWENTY CENTS. 
This Work is a partial First Course, to be used in primary schools, and in the 
younger classes of mixed ichools. It has been taught very successfully in the 
following order : 

First. — Tecch the pupils of the lowest grade 1 (A, or fith grade), to count and 
also to number objects according to the directions given in the Preface of Arith. 
Nos. I. & II. ; also, to distinguish Units and the Composition of Numbers. They 
may also learn to write the Roman or Letter numbers to forty, and the Arabic 
or Figure numbers in decades to about one hundred. 

1 In the primary schools of New York City, and of some other cities, th© beginners , or 
lowest grade is the 6th, next above this is the 5th, and so on to the 1st, which is the 
highest grade of the primary school. In some places, the lowest grade is called the 1st 
grade, above this is the 2d, and so on. 

Second. — Let grade B, or 5th grade, review the lesson of grade A, and also 
learn to write Roman numbers to one hundred, the Arabic or Figure numbers to 
one million, also to print and to write in decades word-numbers, both cardinal 
and ordinal, according to the directions given in the Preface of the Arithmetic. 
The teachers may obtain hints for Oral Exercises from the lessons in the book. 

N. B. — After the pupils have learned to write the numbers in decades, they should be 
exercised in reading the numbers on Arithmetical Chart No. L, first in decades, second 
in the decimations, and third miscellaneously. 

Third. — Let grade C, or 4th grade, read the lessons through Addition, in the 
order found in the book, preceding each lesson by an objective presentation of 
the Universal Table belonging to that number, and by exercises in this Table 
similar to those described in the Preface. Let the tables and the proofs be given 
with the books closed. At first, let the decimations be given with the Chart be- 
fore the class ; in reviewing, let them be given without the Chart. 

N. B.— Before the pupils are allowed to read a lesson from the book, they should IrA 
required to pronounce and to spell those words which are not already familiar to them. 

Fourth. — Let grade D, or the 3d grade, review the preceding lessons, and 
also read those in Subtraction. Each lesson being accompanied by an objective 
presentation on the numeral frame, and by black board, slate, and oral exer- 
cises, repeating the universal table. For examples, see corresponding lessons in 
Arithmetic No. II. 

N B. — When the pupils have become familiar with the Decimations of Subtraction, 
those of Addition and Subtraction may be combined. 

Thus, 1 + 1 = 2, 1 from 1 = 0; 1+11 = 12, 1 from 11 = 10, etc. 

Fifth. — Let grade E, or the 2d grade, read the lessons in Multipli 
A 



Recede each lesson wun its objective presentation, ana exhibifc e&cu tnoie and 
its proof by combinations of its values on the abacus. The Decimations should 
receive special attention, and should be recited vigorously. In review, the Deci- 
mations of Addition, Subtraction, and Multiplication may be combined. 

Thus, 2 and 2 = 4, 2 from 2 = 0, twice 2 = 4 ; 2 and 12 = 14, 2 from 12 = 10, twice 
12 = 24, etc. 

N. B. — The Tables of Arithmetical Quantities ( ,c compound numbers ") should now bt 
presented objectively, directions for doing which are given with these tables in No. II. 

Sixth. — Let grade F, or 1st grade, read the lessons in Division, with the Uni- 
versal Tables and the Proofs and Decimations, as in the preceding grades. When 
the Decimations by Division have become familiar, they may be combined with 
those of Addition, Subtraction and Multiplication. 

Thus, 2 and 2 = 4, 2 from 2 =r 0, twice 2 = 4, 2 in 2 = 1 time, or one half of 2 = 1 one 
2 and 12 = 14, 2 from 12 = 10, twice 12 = 24, % in 12 = 6 times, or half of 12 = 6 ones, etc. 

N. B. — It is well for the teacher to read a lesson before giving the Oral Exercises intro- 
ductory to it. 

II. The Complete First Course Arithmetic. Objective and Synthetic. (Set 
Arith. No. Ill, Preface.) Retail Price, 

This Work contains directions for arithmetical object lessons, using common 
things and the abacus ; in values, unit, fractional, and mixed ; in the combination* 
of these values ; in the values of Arithmetical Quantities, (" compound num- 
bers ") ; in mensuration ; hints for oral lessons to be used with these object 
lessons, and for graphic lessons on blackboards and slates; for the construction 
and use of charts, etc., etc. 

It also contains lessons and exercises in combining numbers, from Zero to 
Logarithms : as Tables, Proofs of Tables, Decimations, Progressions, Multiples, 
Measures, Powers, Roots, etc., etc. 

The First Course Arithmetics are designed to be used as arithmetical Reading 
Books ; as such, they may be alternated with the Second, Third, and Fourth 
readers. The exercises of each lesson are transcripts of the daily uses of Valuei 
and of Numbers. 

TO. The Second Course Arithmetic. Subjective and Analytical. (See Pre/ace.) 

Boards, $0.80 ; cloth, $1.00. 
IV. Arithmetical Chart, No. I Retail price, 20 cents 

LANGUAGE SERIES. 
L The First Course Language ; or, The Rhetorical Grammar. Objective and 

Synthetic Retail price, $1. . 

IL The Second Course Language; or, The Philosophy of Language, as an 
exact science. Subjective and Analytic. 

Retail price, cloth, $1.50; extra bound, $2.00. 

Teachers may obtain specimen copies for examination at reduced prices, and if thess 
••pics be returned, the money will he refunded ; but if books he ordered for introduction 
a eepy for tke teofibi;?'* us<j, without charge, will be added to the order. 

AdDRBOB. 

WOOLWORTH, AINSWORTH & CO., 
51 John St., N. Y. 



At the close of a Series of Conversations on Language and the method 
of teaching it, the following resolutions were unanimously adopted by 
the members of the Brooklyn (New York) Teachers' Association : 

Resolved, That the system of language as presented by Professor Cruttenden 
deserves the attention of all students and teachers of this important science. 

Resolved, That the method of teaching the science of language—so full of com- 
mon sense, so free from dogmatism — as illustrated by Professor Cruttenden, is 
well adapted to enable the pupils to acquire a thorough understanding of the 
subject ; and, in our opinion, may be successfully used with any grammatical 
system. 

Resolved, That the thanks of the Association are hereby tendered to Pro- 
fessor Cruttenden for his able, pleasant, and, to us, profitable Course of Conver- 
sations upon the subject of language. 

A. S. Higgins, Sec'y. T. W. Valentine, Preset. 

The following extracts from the official Keport of T. S. Mount, 
Commissioner of Schools, Suffolk Co., are in the 15th Annual 
Report made to the Legislature of the State of New York, by 
the Sup. of Public Instruction, the Hon. A. B. Weaver. 

We have had, as usual, two sessions of the Teachers' Institute, of one 
week each, held at Riverhead, commencing on the 6th of April and the 
26th of August. Prof. I). H. Cruttenden acted as Conductor. He gave 
instruction upon language, object teaching, arithmetic, geography, and 
the science of teaching. 

There is a best way to exercise and to develop the divine faculties of 
the human spirit and those of its physical temple — to the end that the 
highest possible degree of health, and usefulness, and enjoyment may dp 
secured. There are principles and laws showing that method. Those 
laws and those principles may be ascertained as certainly and as accu- 
rately as those of any other system. They constitute the Science of 
Teaching. Professor D. H. Cruttenden is the pioneer among our instruc- 
tors in this direction. With a powerf'il, vigorous mind, accustomed to 
habits of deep penetration and close analysis, he brings u) the work a 
long and rich experience. His instructions given at our Institute many 
years ago, have resulted in an immense advantage to the teachers of this 
county. 

ADVERTISEMENT. 

The services of the Subscriber, as heretofore, are offered to the Public 
for the following purposes; — 

1. To assist in the organization of Graded Schools. 

2. To conduct Teachers' Institutes. 

3. To train Classes of Teachers in the objective and subjective methods of 
Teaching. 

4. To lecture before Associations, Lyceums, etc., on subjects belonging 
to the growth or development, and to the use or employment of Bumin 
Power as the means of Self-Culture. 

D. H. CRUTTENDEN. 
Address, 51 John Street, N. T. City. 
R 



We, members of the Teachers' Training Class, organized and taught by Prof. 
D. H. Cruttenden, in Oorham Seminary, during the term ending April 29£A, 
1870, do hereby offer to the public the following statements: — 

We have attended Prof. Cruttenden's Course of Instruction, and have taken 
notes on the Science and Art of Teaching. As a System it is peculiarly adapted 
£> the wants of man's physical, mental and moral nature. 

We like his method of presenting each study in two Courses — a Primary or 
/irst Course, and a Higher or Second Course. 

We can speak from personal experience as to its practical utility, having 
pursued the First and Second Courses separately in Arithmetic, and the First 
and Second Course combined in Language. 

Its advantages are three-fold ; — 

First, Pupils trained in his First Course will gain a more thorough and prac- 
tical knowledge of Arithmetic, and will gain it in less time, than by using any 
other work on this subject. 

Second, Not only will there be a great saving of time, but also a great saving 
of expense for Arithmetics ; since, according to his plan, only two Arithmetic? 
are necessary for a full and thorough Arithmetical Course. 

Third, Every lesson in Prof. Cruttenden's First Course in Arithmetic is * 
most excellent Beading Lesson. It both preserves and developes the natural 
powers of voice and speech, and is sure to correct those bad habits contracted 
by pupils in learning to read. 

We cannot too highly commend Mrs. Cruttenden's System of Drawing and 
Writing combined, and the practical manner in which she applies her Outline 
Drawing and Graphies to such studies as History, Geography, Botany, Physio- 
logy, etc. 

In conclusion, we would commend Prof. Cruttenden's Methods and Courses 
of Instruction to the careful consideration of those interested in public instruc- 
tion, believing that the interests of our Schools demand their adoption. 

These resolutions were signed by the Class, unanimously ; most of the 
Teachers had taught in Schools of different grades, an average of about five years. 



I have adopted and used Prof. Cruttenden's " Philosophy of Language," and 
find in it an answer to a need I have long felt, in common with other teachers, 
a natural and rational Grammar. I hope to see it universally adopted. 

G. M. BODGE, A.B., 
Principal of Gould'' s Academy. 
Bethel, Maine, June 2d, 18*70. 

Prof. Cruttenden's Arithmetics have been adopted with marked success in 
many of our schools hereabout. 

Bbthkl, Maine, June 3d, 1870. G. M. BODGE. 

M. 



From J B. WEBB, A. M., Principal of Gorham Seminary and Academy. 

My first acquaintance with Prof. D. H. Cruttenden's First Course or Objective, 
and Second Course or Subjective methods of teaching, was while he was con- 
ducting the Institutes in Cumberland County last Autumn. 

Notwithstanding the very large number of Teachers, (over 400,) that attended 
the two Institutes in the County, and the shortness of the time, allowed him 
(about four days to each Institute,) to develop his Methods, I was greatly 
surprised at the readiness with which the Teachers adopted them. 

I have also been delighted at the success which has attended those Teachers 
who have practiced his Methods. 

Having become satisfied that this is the true system for developing and 
exercising the mental powers, making pupils strong, self-reliant and investigating, 
I established on this plan a Teachers' Class in the Gorham Seminary, Feb. 15th, 
1870. This term has just been closed. 

In this Training Department, Language, History and Geography, Mental 
Science and Arithmetic have been taught according to Prof. Cruttenden's plan 
for an Objective or Synthetic Course, which he calls his First Course, and also 
according to his Subjective or Analytic Course, or his Second Course, and I am 
satisfied that his First Course is far superior to our present Primary Methods 
of teaching, and that his Second Course is superior to the Higher Course 
usually followed in our schools. 

When the difference between Prof. Cruttenden's First Course in Arithmetic, 
Language, &c, and what are now galled Primary Arithmetic, Grammar, &c, is 
understood, it cannot fail to be acknowledged as the best Primary plan that has 
ever been proposed. It is founded on the laws of the human mind, and hence, 
is according to Nature. I have arranged that hereafter the Seminary and 
Training Department shall be taught according to these methods. 

J. B. WEBB, 
Superintendent of Schools, Cumberland Co, y Me. 



From the Principal of Richmond Academy, Maine, May 24th, 1870. 
Prof. D. H. Cruttenden, 

Dear Sir: — I have used your Philosophy of Language since Dec, 1869, and 
the longer I use it the more firmly am I grounded in the belief that you have 
succeeded in scientizing the Logic, Rhetoric and Grammar of the English Lan- 
guage. As a class-book in Rhetoric it cannot be compared with any other text- 
book extant; it can only be contrasted; truth to error, simplicity to ambiguity. 

In word-analysis or Grammar, it is grounded in reason, and raised in truth, 
from which there can be no appeal. In the hands of the live teacher, it must 
Bucc««d in sweeping the field of Language clean, from the errors of those who 
now only " see as through a glass darkly." 

Yours sincerely, A. A. WOODBRIDGE. 

Its Philosophy of Mind is a gem. 
%&* Please hand this to the principal of your School. 



Prom A. S. HIGGINS, formerly Principal of Huntington High School, N. T. 
then Principal of Public Sclwol, Portland, Maine ; now Principal of Publi$ 
School No. 29, Brooklyn., N. Y. 

Pkot. D. H. Cruttenden, 

Dear Sir : — After ten years of acquaintance with your system of Language 
and Arithmetics, most of the time spent in teaching them, I have only to repeat 
what I have 80 often said, that they are greatly superior, in my estimation, to 
any others. The Language, especially, commends itself to every progressive 
teacher. If ability to parse be the end of grammatical training, this system 
gives to pupils this ability, at an earlier age and more quickly than any other 
system which has come to my knowledge, and I have had occasion to investigate 
a great many. If, on the contrary, the pupil study Language to learn how to 
make it, how to criticise it when made and how to use it, mis system stands 
without an equal. It teaches pupils to think for themselves. Pupils have fre- 
quently confessed to me that they dated the awakening of their dormant energies 
and capabilities from the time they commenced its study. They cease to be 
parrots when the conviction is forced upon them that there is in every sentence, 
or ought to be, a thought ; and that they have the ability to detect it, if there. 
Teachers who dislike to have their pupils ask questions are cautioned against the 
use of the Language. 

I commend your Second Course in Language to the favorable notice of 
teachers in Academies and High Schools. To pupils well grounded in it, I have 
taught Latin and Greek with great rapidity ; being enabled to have such pupils 
surpass, at the end of one year, other pupils who had devoted two years to the 
same studies, because the fundamental laws of Language, so plainly and fully 
taught in the system, are of universal application. 

While the system is thus valuable, the method of presentation deserves the 
careful consideration of educators. To me, personally, this has been of more 
value, in my profession, than the knowledge of Language gained from the book. 
I have used this method in teaching Chemistry, Philosophy, Physical Geography 
etc., with results gratifying to myself and profitable to the pupil. To the live 
teacher these books will be welcome. Let him master them himself; then get 
on his feet and teach them, and I doubt not that both he and his pupils will be 
aroused to greater intellectual activity. 

I cordially commend these books to my fellow -educators throughout the 
country. 



D. R. Cruttenden, Esq. 

Dear Sir : — Ten years' experience in the use of your Arithmetics and Lan- 
guages has increased my belief that they are the best and most practical that 
I have ever used. I am now using your revised editions, with marked succeef 
in all the departments of my school. 

L. HOMER HART, 
Prin. Babflon P. S No. 21, Suffolk Co., IT. F. 
I 



ORUTTENDEN'S ARITHMETICAL SERIES- 



No. I. YOUNG PUPIL'S ARITHMETIC. 

3ES1GNED TO FOLLOW OBJECT LESSONS. 

RETAIL Pit [CE TWENTY CEJSTTS. 
This Work is a partial First Course, to be used in primary schools, and in the 
70unger classes of mixed gchools. It has been taught very successfully in the 
following order : 

First. — Te^ch the pupils of the lowest grade 1 (A, or 6th grade), to count and 
also to number objects according to the directions given in the Preface of Arith. 
Nos. I. & II. ; also, to distinguish Units and the Composition of Numbers. They 
may also learn to write the Roman or Letter numbers to forty, and the Arabio 
or Figure numbers in decades to about one hundred. 

1 In the primary schools of New York City, and of some other cities, tUe beginners, or 
lowest grade is the 6th, next above this is the 5th, and so on to the 1st, which is the 
highest grade of the primary school. In some places, the lowest grade is called the 1st 
grade, above this is the 2d, and so on. 

Second. — Let grade B, or 5th grade, review the lessdn of grade A, and also 
learn to write Roman numbers to one hundred; the Arabic or Figure numbers to 
one million, also to print and to write in decades word-numbers, both cardinal 
and ordinal, accordiug to the directions given in the Preface of the Arithmetic. 
The teachers may obtain hints for Oral Exercises from the lessons in the book. 

N. B.— After the pupils have learned to write the numbers in decades, they should be 
exercised in reading the numbers on Arithmetical Chart No. I. y jirstiii decades, second 
in the decimations, and third miscellaneously. 

Third. — Let grade C, or 4th grade, read the lessons through Addition, in the 
order found in the book, preceding each .lesson by an objective presentation of 
the Universal Table belonging to that number, and by exercises in this Table 
similar to those described in the Preface. Let the tatdes and the proofs be given 
with the books closed. At first, let the decimati >iis be given with the Chart be 
fore the class ; in reviewing, let them be given without the Chart. 

N. B. — Before the pupils are allowed to read a lesson from the book, they should bf 
required to pronounce and to spell those words which are not already familiar to them. 

Fourth. — Let grade D, or the 3d grade, review the preceding lessons, and 
also read those in Subtraction. Each lesson being accompanied by an objective 
jresentation on the numeral frame, and by black board, slate, and oral exer- 
tSiges, repeating the universal table. For examples, see corresponding lessons in 
Arithmetic No. Ill 

N B.— When the pupils have become familiar with the Decimations of Subtraction, 
those of Addition and Subtraction may be combined. 

Thus, 1 + 1 = 2, 1 from 1 = 0; 1 + 11 = 12, 1 from 11 = 10, etc. 

Fifth. — Let grade E, or the 2d grade, read the lessons in Multiplication. 

A 



/•recede each lesson with its objective presentation, ana exhibit eaca tame and 
its proof by combinations of its values oo the abacus. The Decimations should 
receive special attention, and should be recited vigorously. In review, the Deci- 
mations of Addition, Subtraction, and Multiplication may be combined. 

Thus, 2 and 2 = 4, 2 from 2 = 0, twice 2 = 4 ; 2 and 12 = 14, 2 frcm 12 = 10, twice 
12 = 24, etc. 

N. B.— The Table? of Arithmetical Quantities (" compound numbers ") should now bi 
presented objectively, directions for doing which are given with these tables in No. II. 

Sixth. — Let grade F, or 1st grade, read the lessons in Division, with the Uni- 
versal Tables and the Proofs and Decimations, as in the preceding grades. When 
the Decimations by Division have become familiar, they may be combined with 
those of Addition, Subtraction and Multiplication. 

Thus, 2 and 2 == 4, 2 from 2 — 0, twice 2 = 4, 2 in 2 = 1 time, or one half of 2 = 1 one 
2 and 12 = 14, 2 from 12 = 10, twice 12 = 24, 2 in 12 = 6 times, or half of 12 = 6 ones, eto, 

N. B. — It is well for the teacher to read a lesson before giving the Oral Exercises intro- 
ductory to it. 

II. The Complete First Course Arithmetic. Objective and Synthetic. (Sec 
Arith. No. III., Preface.) Retail Price, 

This Work contains directions for arithmetical object lessons, using common 
things and the abacus ; in values, unit, fractional, and mixed ; in the combination* 
of these values; in the values of Arithmetical Quantities, ("compound num- 
bers ") ; in mensuration ; hints for oral lessons to be used with these object 
lessons, and for graphic lessons on blackboards and slates; for the construction 
and use of charts, etc., etc. 

It also contains lessons and exercises in combining numbers, from Zero to 
Logarithms : as Tab-les, Proofs of Tables, Decimations, Progressions, Multiples, 
Measures, Powers, Roots, etc., etc. 

The First Course Arithmetics are designed to be used as ari'hmetical Reading 
Books ; as such, they may be alternated with the Second, Third, and Fourth, 
readers. The exercises of each lesson are transcripts of the daily uses of Value* 
and of Numbers. 

HI. The Second Course Arithmetic. Subjective and Analytical. (See Preface.) 

Boards, $0.80; doth, $1.00. 
IV. Arithmetical Chart, No. I Retail price, l\j cento 

LANGUAGE SERIES. 
L The First Course Language; or, The Rhetorical Grammar. Object "vn and 

Synthetic Retail price, $1. . 

LL The Second Course Language; or, The Philosophy of Language, as an 
exact science. Subjective and Analytic. 

Retail price, cloth, $1.50; extra bound, $2.00. 

Teachers may obtain specimen copies for examination at reduced prices, on ! if thes« 
copies be returned, the money will be refunded ; hut if books be ordered for introducii;**, 
a acpT for the loaTh/tr" 1 * use, without charge, will be added to the order. 

Addres*. 
WOOL WORTH, AINSWORTH & CO., 
51 John St., N. Y. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




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